Chapter 11
Photon-in Electron-out Spectroscopies
11.1 Introduction
A variety of X-ray spectroscopies can be classified as “photon-in electron-out”
techniques. Analogous to the “photon-in photon-out” methods discussed in
Chap. 8, these electron-based methods involve measuring both the incident photon
energy and the outgoing electron energy and in some cases the electron momentum
and/or spin. Depending on the energy of the incoming photon, the type of electron
analysis, and the experimental conditions, an inevitable slew of acronyms has been
applied:
• Ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS).
• X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS).
• Hard X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (HAXPS).
• Angle-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy (ARPES).
• Spin-polarized X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (SPXPS).
• Spin-polarized and angle-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy (SP-ARPES).
• Ambient pressure X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (APXPS).
• Auger electron spectroscopy (AES).
Another important “photon-in electron-out” technique for structure determination
has been “photoelectron diffraction,” where photoelectrons emitted from a surface
are imaged. As a diffraction (instead of spectroscopy) method, for now we will refer
to excellent review articles [505–508].
The first four of these methods are illustrated schematically in Fig. 11.1. The
essence of the experiment is to illuminate a sample with monochromatic X-rays and
to record the kinetic energies of the emitted photoelectrons. A basic equation that
describes the conservation of energy in this experiment is [509]:
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
S. P. Cramer, X-Ray Spectroscopy with Synchrotron Radiation, Biological and Medical
Physics, Biomedical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28551-7_11
279
Photon-in Electron-out Spectroscopies
11.1 Introduction
A variety of X-ray spectroscopies can be classified as “photon-in electron-out”
techniques. Analogous to the “photon-in photon-out” methods discussed in
Chap. 8, these electron-based methods involve measuring both the incident photon
energy and the outgoing electron energy and in some cases the electron momentum
and/or spin. Depending on the energy of the incoming photon, the type of electron
analysis, and the experimental conditions, an inevitable slew of acronyms has been
applied:
• Ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS).
• X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS).
• Hard X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (HAXPS).
• Angle-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy (ARPES).
• Spin-polarized X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (SPXPS).
• Spin-polarized and angle-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy (SP-ARPES).
• Ambient pressure X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (APXPS).
• Auger electron spectroscopy (AES).
Another important “photon-in electron-out” technique for structure determination
has been “photoelectron diffraction,” where photoelectrons emitted from a surface
are imaged. As a diffraction (instead of spectroscopy) method, for now we will refer
to excellent review articles [505–508].
The first four of these methods are illustrated schematically in Fig. 11.1. The
essence of the experiment is to illuminate a sample with monochromatic X-rays and
to record the kinetic energies of the emitted photoelectrons. A basic equation that
describes the conservation of energy in this experiment is [509]:
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
S. P. Cramer, X-Ray Spectroscopy with Synchrotron Radiation, Biological and Medical
Physics, Biomedical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28551-7_11
279