2.1 Spherical (Zero Dimensional, 0D) Nanofillers
2.1.1 Carbon Black
Carbon Black (CB) is a colloidal form of elemental carbon, which usually consists
of spherical particles. Size of these molecules is less than few dozen nanometers.
Particles create agglomerations with different spatial configuration. Structure and
configurations of particles influence properties of carbon black. The genesis of
obtaining carbon black is mainly based on incomplete combustion of carbonaceous
materials. The main precursors include: wood, coal, natural gas and hydrocarbons.
The basic production methods for this material include: furnace method, lamp
method, and now more widely used plasma method. Commercially available
carbon black fillers have varying level of structure, particle size, chemical reactivity
and pH that lead to different levels of reinforcement.
2.1.2 Silicon Dioxide
Silicon dioxide (SiO 2 ) is commonly called silica. Silica is a crystalline compound
occurring abundantly as quartz, sand and many other minerals. Silica particles are
composed of small aggregated particles due to intra-molecular hydrogen bonding.
Surface treatment to improve filler-polymer interaction has become very common
in rubber industry [22–27]. There are many coupling agents that can be used to
enhance polymer filler interaction, which include organosilanes, phosphorous
esters, titanate coupling agents and chromium acid complexes. Silane coupling
agents have dual reactivity since they are capable of reacting with both polymer and
filler.
2.1.3 Titanium Dioxide
Titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) nanoparticles have been used as white colour pigment due
to its high refractive index, chemical stability and nontoxicity. One of the most
interesting properties of TiO 2 based cosmetics is UV-ray absorption and UV-ray
scattering [28]. The surface modification of TiO 2 particles has been reported using
different silane coupling agents, such as 3-amino propyl triethoxysilane, n-propyl
triethoxysilane and 3-methacryloxy propyl trimethoxysilane [29]. Recently Sabzi
et al. [30] carried out surface modification of TiO 2 nanoparticles with amino propyl
trimethoxy silane (APS) and investigated its effect on the properties of a polyurethane composite coating, demonstrating improved mechanical and UV-protective
properties of the urethane clear coating. In a more recent study, the dispersion
stability of TiO 2 nanoparticles in organic solvents was improved by treating the
particle surface with a silane coupling agent [31].
92
A.B. Nair et al.
2.1.1 Carbon Black
Carbon Black (CB) is a colloidal form of elemental carbon, which usually consists
of spherical particles. Size of these molecules is less than few dozen nanometers.
Particles create agglomerations with different spatial configuration. Structure and
configurations of particles influence properties of carbon black. The genesis of
obtaining carbon black is mainly based on incomplete combustion of carbonaceous
materials. The main precursors include: wood, coal, natural gas and hydrocarbons.
The basic production methods for this material include: furnace method, lamp
method, and now more widely used plasma method. Commercially available
carbon black fillers have varying level of structure, particle size, chemical reactivity
and pH that lead to different levels of reinforcement.
2.1.2 Silicon Dioxide
Silicon dioxide (SiO 2 ) is commonly called silica. Silica is a crystalline compound
occurring abundantly as quartz, sand and many other minerals. Silica particles are
composed of small aggregated particles due to intra-molecular hydrogen bonding.
Surface treatment to improve filler-polymer interaction has become very common
in rubber industry [22–27]. There are many coupling agents that can be used to
enhance polymer filler interaction, which include organosilanes, phosphorous
esters, titanate coupling agents and chromium acid complexes. Silane coupling
agents have dual reactivity since they are capable of reacting with both polymer and
filler.
2.1.3 Titanium Dioxide
Titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) nanoparticles have been used as white colour pigment due
to its high refractive index, chemical stability and nontoxicity. One of the most
interesting properties of TiO 2 based cosmetics is UV-ray absorption and UV-ray
scattering [28]. The surface modification of TiO 2 particles has been reported using
different silane coupling agents, such as 3-amino propyl triethoxysilane, n-propyl
triethoxysilane and 3-methacryloxy propyl trimethoxysilane [29]. Recently Sabzi
et al. [30] carried out surface modification of TiO 2 nanoparticles with amino propyl
trimethoxy silane (APS) and investigated its effect on the properties of a polyurethane composite coating, demonstrating improved mechanical and UV-protective
properties of the urethane clear coating. In a more recent study, the dispersion
stability of TiO 2 nanoparticles in organic solvents was improved by treating the
particle surface with a silane coupling agent [31].
92
A.B. Nair et al.