of poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogels obtained by freeze/thaw techniques. Macromolecules
38:6629–6639
39. Holloway JL, Spiller KL, Lowman AM, Palmese GR (2011) Analysis of the in vitro swelling
behavior of poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogels in osmotic pressure solution for soft tissue replacement. Acta Biomater 7:2477–2482
40. Hassan C, Stewart J, Peppas N (2000) Diffusional characteristics of freeze/thawed poly(vinyl
alcohol) hydrogels: applications to protein controlled release from multilaminate devices. Eur
J Pharm Biopharm 49:161–165
41. Cha WI, Hyon SH, Ikada Y (1993) Microstructure of poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogels investigated with differential scanning calorimetry. Macromol Chem Phys 194:2433–2441
42. Millon LE, Wan WK (2006) The polyvinyl alcohol-bacterial cellulose system as a new
nanocomposite for biomedical applications. J Biomed Mater Res B 79B:245–253
43. Watase M, Nishinari K, Nambu M (1983) Anomalous increase of the elastic-modulus of
frozen poly (vinyl alcohol) gels. Cryo-Letters 4:197–200
44. National Toxicology Program (1998) NTP toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of polyvinyl alcohol (CAS no.9002-89-5) in female B6C3F1 mice (intravaginal studies). Natl Toxicol
Program Tech Rep Ser 474:1–110
45. Millon LE, Oates CJ, Wan W (2009) Compression properties of polyvinyl alcohol—bacterial
cellulose nanocomposite. J Biomed Mater Res B 90B:922–929
46. Watase M, Nambu M, Nishinari K (1983) Rheological properties of an anomalous poly (vinyl
alcohol) gel. Polym Commun 24:52–54
47. Fink JK (2011) Handbook of engineering and specialty thermoplastics, water soluble polymers. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ
48. van Aartsen J (1970) Theoretical observations on spinodal decomposition of polymer solutions. Eur Polym J 6:919–924
49. Fergg F, Keil F, Quader H (2001) Investigations of the microscopic structure of poly(vinyl
alcohol) hydrogels by confocal laser scanning microscopy. Colloid Polym Sci 279:61–67
50. Ricciardi R, Auriemma F, De Rosa C, Laupretre F (2004) X-ray diffraction analysis of poly
(vinyl alcohol) hydrogels, obtained by freezing and thawing techniques. Macromolecules
37:1921–1927
51. Liu K, Ovaert TC (2011) Poro-viscoelastic constitutive modeling of unconfined creep of
hydrogels using finite element analysis with integrated optimization method. J Mech Behav
Biomed Mater 4:440–450
52. Nakaoki T, Yamashita H (2008) Bound states of water in poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogel
prepared by repeated freezing and melting method. J Mol Struct 875:282–287
53. Stammen JA, Williams S, Ku DN, Guldberg RE (2001) Mechanical properties of a novel
PVA hydrogel in shear and unconfined compression. Biomaterials 22:799–806
54. Wang BH, Campbell G (2009) Formulations of polyvinyl alcohol cryogel that mimic the
biomechanical properties of soft tissues in the natural lumbar intervertebral disc. Spine
34:2745–2753
55. Duboeuf F, Basarab A, Liebgott H, Brusseau E, Delachartre P, Vray D (2009) Investigation
of PVA cryogel Young’s modulus stability with time, controlled by a simple reliable
technique. Med Phys 36:656–661
56. Nishinari K, Watase M, Tanaka F (1996) Structure of junction zones in poly (vinyl alcohol)
gels by rheological and thermal studies. J Chim Phys Physicochim Biol 93:880–886
57. Urushizaki F, Yamaguchi H, Nakamura K, Numajiri S, Sugibayashi K, Morimoto Y (1990)
Swelling and mechanical-properties of poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogels. Int J Pharm
58:135–142
58. Bodugoz-Senturk H, Macias CE, Kung JH, Muratoglu OK (2009) Poly(vinyl alcohol)acrylamide hydrogels as load-bearing cartilage substitute. Biomaterials 30:589–596
59. Millon LE, Mohammadi H, Wan WK (2006) Anisotropic polyvinyl alcohol hydrogel for
cardiovascular applications. J Biomed Mater Res B 79B:305–311
318
W. Wan et al.
38:6629–6639
39. Holloway JL, Spiller KL, Lowman AM, Palmese GR (2011) Analysis of the in vitro swelling
behavior of poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogels in osmotic pressure solution for soft tissue replacement. Acta Biomater 7:2477–2482
40. Hassan C, Stewart J, Peppas N (2000) Diffusional characteristics of freeze/thawed poly(vinyl
alcohol) hydrogels: applications to protein controlled release from multilaminate devices. Eur
J Pharm Biopharm 49:161–165
41. Cha WI, Hyon SH, Ikada Y (1993) Microstructure of poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogels investigated with differential scanning calorimetry. Macromol Chem Phys 194:2433–2441
42. Millon LE, Wan WK (2006) The polyvinyl alcohol-bacterial cellulose system as a new
nanocomposite for biomedical applications. J Biomed Mater Res B 79B:245–253
43. Watase M, Nishinari K, Nambu M (1983) Anomalous increase of the elastic-modulus of
frozen poly (vinyl alcohol) gels. Cryo-Letters 4:197–200
44. National Toxicology Program (1998) NTP toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of polyvinyl alcohol (CAS no.9002-89-5) in female B6C3F1 mice (intravaginal studies). Natl Toxicol
Program Tech Rep Ser 474:1–110
45. Millon LE, Oates CJ, Wan W (2009) Compression properties of polyvinyl alcohol—bacterial
cellulose nanocomposite. J Biomed Mater Res B 90B:922–929
46. Watase M, Nambu M, Nishinari K (1983) Rheological properties of an anomalous poly (vinyl
alcohol) gel. Polym Commun 24:52–54
47. Fink JK (2011) Handbook of engineering and specialty thermoplastics, water soluble polymers. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ
48. van Aartsen J (1970) Theoretical observations on spinodal decomposition of polymer solutions. Eur Polym J 6:919–924
49. Fergg F, Keil F, Quader H (2001) Investigations of the microscopic structure of poly(vinyl
alcohol) hydrogels by confocal laser scanning microscopy. Colloid Polym Sci 279:61–67
50. Ricciardi R, Auriemma F, De Rosa C, Laupretre F (2004) X-ray diffraction analysis of poly
(vinyl alcohol) hydrogels, obtained by freezing and thawing techniques. Macromolecules
37:1921–1927
51. Liu K, Ovaert TC (2011) Poro-viscoelastic constitutive modeling of unconfined creep of
hydrogels using finite element analysis with integrated optimization method. J Mech Behav
Biomed Mater 4:440–450
52. Nakaoki T, Yamashita H (2008) Bound states of water in poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogel
prepared by repeated freezing and melting method. J Mol Struct 875:282–287
53. Stammen JA, Williams S, Ku DN, Guldberg RE (2001) Mechanical properties of a novel
PVA hydrogel in shear and unconfined compression. Biomaterials 22:799–806
54. Wang BH, Campbell G (2009) Formulations of polyvinyl alcohol cryogel that mimic the
biomechanical properties of soft tissues in the natural lumbar intervertebral disc. Spine
34:2745–2753
55. Duboeuf F, Basarab A, Liebgott H, Brusseau E, Delachartre P, Vray D (2009) Investigation
of PVA cryogel Young’s modulus stability with time, controlled by a simple reliable
technique. Med Phys 36:656–661
56. Nishinari K, Watase M, Tanaka F (1996) Structure of junction zones in poly (vinyl alcohol)
gels by rheological and thermal studies. J Chim Phys Physicochim Biol 93:880–886
57. Urushizaki F, Yamaguchi H, Nakamura K, Numajiri S, Sugibayashi K, Morimoto Y (1990)
Swelling and mechanical-properties of poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogels. Int J Pharm
58:135–142
58. Bodugoz-Senturk H, Macias CE, Kung JH, Muratoglu OK (2009) Poly(vinyl alcohol)acrylamide hydrogels as load-bearing cartilage substitute. Biomaterials 30:589–596
59. Millon LE, Mohammadi H, Wan WK (2006) Anisotropic polyvinyl alcohol hydrogel for
cardiovascular applications. J Biomed Mater Res B 79B:305–311
318
W. Wan et al.