Neonicotinoids were developed in the 1980s as alternatives to organophosphates, carbamates, and pyrethroids, many of which had exhibited pest resistance
issues. Neonicotinoid insecticides are very water soluble, allowing them to be
applied to soil and taken up by plants. This also makes aquatic ecosystems and
associated organisms particularly vulnerable to this class of pesticides. It should
be noted that development of neonicotinoids includes a class of insecticides that
are registered by US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) for a variety of
uses, including the control of sucking insects on vegetables, fruits, cotton,
ornamentals, turf, and/or as a seed treatment. The five neonicotinoids registered
by USEPA are acetamiprid, clothianidin, dinotefuran, imidacloprid, and
thiamethoxam.
2. Inorganic chemical pesticides
(a) Arsenicals such as Paris green, lead arsenate, and arsenic trioxide
(b) Sulfur and its compounds
(c) Others such as compounds of fluorine and mercury, and hydrogen cyanide
(d) Bordeaux mixture: a mixture of copper(II) sulfate (CuSO 4 ) and slaked lime
(Ca(OH) 2 )
(e) Aluminum or magnesium phosphide(fumigant)
3. Biopesticides
(a) Natural plant-based pesticides such as nicotine, rotenone, pyrethroids, Neem
(tree extract)
(b) Fungal-based mycopesticides, like Green Muscle [7]
(c) Bacterial-based like Bacillus popilliae and Bacillus thuringiensis
(d) Herbal repellents like those extracted from garlic and red chili pepper
US EPA states that biopesticides “include naturally occurring substances that
control pests (biochemical pesticides), microorganisms that control pests (microbial
pesticides), and pesticidal substances produced by plants containing added genetic
material (plant-incorporated protectants).” Effective control of pests through the use
of specific pathogenic microorganisms has been demonstrated for a variety of
insects.
A particularly dramatic example is the decimation of the European pine sawfly
that produced tremendous damage to pine plantations and nurseries in southeastern
Canada and the northeastern United States in 1949. Infection of the insects with a
virus imported from Sweden quickly brought the insects under control. Only two
pathogens are federally registered for use in insect control programs. These are
Bacillus popilliae and Bacillus thuringiensis for the control of Japanese beetles and
various caterpillars, respectively. Several other pathogens await proof of safety and
reliability and are currently being tested.
Other natural biopesticides include those containing Beauveria bassiana (used
against coffee berry borer), Myrothecium verrucaria (used against nematodes), and
Trichoderma harzianum (used against soil fungal diseases). The fungal-based
mycopesticide, Green Muscle, has been used to counteract locust plagues in Africa,
while soil-dwelling bacterial extracts like Spinosad, an insecticide based on chemical
10 Environmental Control of Pests and Vectors
395
issues. Neonicotinoid insecticides are very water soluble, allowing them to be
applied to soil and taken up by plants. This also makes aquatic ecosystems and
associated organisms particularly vulnerable to this class of pesticides. It should
be noted that development of neonicotinoids includes a class of insecticides that
are registered by US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) for a variety of
uses, including the control of sucking insects on vegetables, fruits, cotton,
ornamentals, turf, and/or as a seed treatment. The five neonicotinoids registered
by USEPA are acetamiprid, clothianidin, dinotefuran, imidacloprid, and
thiamethoxam.
2. Inorganic chemical pesticides
(a) Arsenicals such as Paris green, lead arsenate, and arsenic trioxide
(b) Sulfur and its compounds
(c) Others such as compounds of fluorine and mercury, and hydrogen cyanide
(d) Bordeaux mixture: a mixture of copper(II) sulfate (CuSO 4 ) and slaked lime
(Ca(OH) 2 )
(e) Aluminum or magnesium phosphide(fumigant)
3. Biopesticides
(a) Natural plant-based pesticides such as nicotine, rotenone, pyrethroids, Neem
(tree extract)
(b) Fungal-based mycopesticides, like Green Muscle [7]
(c) Bacterial-based like Bacillus popilliae and Bacillus thuringiensis
(d) Herbal repellents like those extracted from garlic and red chili pepper
US EPA states that biopesticides “include naturally occurring substances that
control pests (biochemical pesticides), microorganisms that control pests (microbial
pesticides), and pesticidal substances produced by plants containing added genetic
material (plant-incorporated protectants).” Effective control of pests through the use
of specific pathogenic microorganisms has been demonstrated for a variety of
insects.
A particularly dramatic example is the decimation of the European pine sawfly
that produced tremendous damage to pine plantations and nurseries in southeastern
Canada and the northeastern United States in 1949. Infection of the insects with a
virus imported from Sweden quickly brought the insects under control. Only two
pathogens are federally registered for use in insect control programs. These are
Bacillus popilliae and Bacillus thuringiensis for the control of Japanese beetles and
various caterpillars, respectively. Several other pathogens await proof of safety and
reliability and are currently being tested.
Other natural biopesticides include those containing Beauveria bassiana (used
against coffee berry borer), Myrothecium verrucaria (used against nematodes), and
Trichoderma harzianum (used against soil fungal diseases). The fungal-based
mycopesticide, Green Muscle, has been used to counteract locust plagues in Africa,
while soil-dwelling bacterial extracts like Spinosad, an insecticide based on chemical
10 Environmental Control of Pests and Vectors
395