MAT-LyLu cells and the isolated MLL cells, suggesting that (À) gossypol might
serve as a chemotherapeutic and/or chemopreventive agent (Huang et al. 2009).
Zhong et al. (2013) reported that (À) gossypol-enriched cottonseed oil [(À)GPCSO] inhibited proliferation of pre-adipocytes and downregulated the expression
of cyclin D1 and B-cell lymphoma-2 (BCL-2). Further, it significantly decreased
adipogenesis and, hence, suggested that (À)-GPCSO has the potential as a food
supplement to reduce obesity. Mouse double minute 2 (MDM2) and vascular
endothelial growth factor (VEGF) are important molecules involved in tumor progression. An investigation by Pang et al. (2011) showed that (À) gossypol potently
inhibits human prostate tumor growth on dose-dependent manner inhibited through
modulating VEGF signaling pathway, which further validates its great potential in
clinical practice. More recently, Xiong et al. (2017) reported that the anti-cancer
effects of gossypol are by dual-targeting MDM2 and VEGF in human breast cancer.
3.7 Adverse Effects and Individual Concerns
Cottonseed oil contains both naturally occurring toxins and pesticide contaminants.
Cottonseed oil is generally extracted by using harsh chemical solvents and heat
which may alter the chemistry of the oil. Most nutritionists are still uncertain about
the long-term implications of these changes. In addition, cottonseed oil contains
gossypol, which reacts with protein and reduces the nutritional value. Gossypol
remains in the free state in the whole seed and on cooking; a bound form is formed in
which gossypol combines with free amino or free carboxyl groups of cottonseed
protein. Bound gossypol decreases the nutritive value of protein and availability of
lysine, an essential amino acid (Sekhar and Rao 2011). Gossypol also has an
inhibitory action on the proteolytic enzymes such as pepsin and trypsin, present in
the gastrointestinal tract of birds, which negatively interferes with the protein
digestion reducing its digestibility (Ryan et al. 1986). Gossypol can trigger alterations in the hematological and biochemical parameters of birds as reported by
Aletor (1989).
Moreover, gossypol is toxic to non-ruminant animals including humans, swine,
equines, reptiles, avian, fish, canines, and felines (Coutinho 2002). It has been
reported to cause reproductive problems in ruminants like cattle, sheep, and goats
(Gadelha et al. 2016). It has been known that long-term consumption of gossypolcontaining cottonseed oil contributes to its toxicity resulting in male infertility
(Coutinho 2002; Cope 2018). Gossypol decreases spermatogenesis and sperm
motility in men. Conversely, in a study done in 2006 at the University of Lecce,
Italy showed that gossypol in cottonseed oil is not an effective contraceptive,
because if combined with most proteins, gossypol no longer causes infertility
(Akinola et al. 2009).
Gossypol was found to induce reproductive problems in females by disrupting
estrous cycles, pregnancy, and early embryo development in non-ruminant species
(Randel et al. 1992). The probable mechanisms comprise an endocrine effect on the
84
M. K. Sihag et al.
serve as a chemotherapeutic and/or chemopreventive agent (Huang et al. 2009).
Zhong et al. (2013) reported that (À) gossypol-enriched cottonseed oil [(À)GPCSO] inhibited proliferation of pre-adipocytes and downregulated the expression
of cyclin D1 and B-cell lymphoma-2 (BCL-2). Further, it significantly decreased
adipogenesis and, hence, suggested that (À)-GPCSO has the potential as a food
supplement to reduce obesity. Mouse double minute 2 (MDM2) and vascular
endothelial growth factor (VEGF) are important molecules involved in tumor progression. An investigation by Pang et al. (2011) showed that (À) gossypol potently
inhibits human prostate tumor growth on dose-dependent manner inhibited through
modulating VEGF signaling pathway, which further validates its great potential in
clinical practice. More recently, Xiong et al. (2017) reported that the anti-cancer
effects of gossypol are by dual-targeting MDM2 and VEGF in human breast cancer.
3.7 Adverse Effects and Individual Concerns
Cottonseed oil contains both naturally occurring toxins and pesticide contaminants.
Cottonseed oil is generally extracted by using harsh chemical solvents and heat
which may alter the chemistry of the oil. Most nutritionists are still uncertain about
the long-term implications of these changes. In addition, cottonseed oil contains
gossypol, which reacts with protein and reduces the nutritional value. Gossypol
remains in the free state in the whole seed and on cooking; a bound form is formed in
which gossypol combines with free amino or free carboxyl groups of cottonseed
protein. Bound gossypol decreases the nutritive value of protein and availability of
lysine, an essential amino acid (Sekhar and Rao 2011). Gossypol also has an
inhibitory action on the proteolytic enzymes such as pepsin and trypsin, present in
the gastrointestinal tract of birds, which negatively interferes with the protein
digestion reducing its digestibility (Ryan et al. 1986). Gossypol can trigger alterations in the hematological and biochemical parameters of birds as reported by
Aletor (1989).
Moreover, gossypol is toxic to non-ruminant animals including humans, swine,
equines, reptiles, avian, fish, canines, and felines (Coutinho 2002). It has been
reported to cause reproductive problems in ruminants like cattle, sheep, and goats
(Gadelha et al. 2016). It has been known that long-term consumption of gossypolcontaining cottonseed oil contributes to its toxicity resulting in male infertility
(Coutinho 2002; Cope 2018). Gossypol decreases spermatogenesis and sperm
motility in men. Conversely, in a study done in 2006 at the University of Lecce,
Italy showed that gossypol in cottonseed oil is not an effective contraceptive,
because if combined with most proteins, gossypol no longer causes infertility
(Akinola et al. 2009).
Gossypol was found to induce reproductive problems in females by disrupting
estrous cycles, pregnancy, and early embryo development in non-ruminant species
(Randel et al. 1992). The probable mechanisms comprise an endocrine effect on the
84
M. K. Sihag et al.