16.6 Adverse Effects and Individual Concerns
As RBO is used as a cooking oil in various food preparations; it is very important to
assess its chemical and nutrient composition, nutrient quality, and toxicological
safety. Various studies have been conducted which indicate that consumption of
RBO in the diet does not have a severe effect on absorption, utilization, and growth
promotion in rats (Sharma and Rukmini 1986; Seetharamiah and Chandrasekhara
1989). The bioactive components (β-sitosterol, campesterol, stigmasterol, squalene,
γ-oryzanol, tocopherols, and tocotrienols) of RBO did not reveal any toxicity and
carcinogenicity in in-vivo assays in mice and rats (Tamagawa et al. 1992a, b).
Toxicological effects of RBO have been evaluated in rats by conducting
multigeneration studies in which they were fed RBO at 10% level and reproductive
performance was judged by the percentages of consumption, birth weight, litter size,
weaning weight, and pre-weaning mortality (Rukmini et al. 1980). Also, RBO did
not show any mutagenicity when tested by a bacterial reverse mutation in Ames
mutagenicity assays (Polasa and Rukmini 1987; Kusum et al. 2011).
Studies have also revealed that RBO is not a sensitizer and does not cause allergic
reactions. Ocular toxicity assays showed negative results for RBO, rice germ oil
(RGO), and rice wax. Dermal exposure assay confirmed that RBO and RGO were
not phototoxic and had a UV absorption maximum at 315 nm (Amended Final report
on Safety Assessment of RBO 2006). No side effects were observed in adults and
children even at high doses (1.5–3.3 g/day) of phytosterols from the RBO as they are
poorly absorbed and can effectively be excreted via biliary route (Becker et al. 1993;
Weststrate and Meijer 1998). Araghi et al. (2016) evaluated the toxicity and safety
aspects of RBO in the chicken embryo model. They demonstrated that RBO showed
no toxicity in the chicken embryo model, and therefore, it might be regarded as safe
for human consumption. Oluremi et al. (2013) observed that crude RBO may contain
some heavy metals (Pb, As, Cr, Se, Cd, Ni), and therefore it should be refined to
reduce the Fe and Cu overloads (60 mg/kg. 0.7 mg kg, respectively), as they may
appear in higher quantities than recommended by the CODEX range (1.5 and
0.1 mg/kg respectively).
16.7 Food Applications
The bran obtained by industrial milling of rice is a powder-like material, containing
pericarp, aleurone, pulverized germ, and little endosperm. The rice bran and germ
are rich in nutrients like protein, lipids, vitamins, and trace minerals and can help
alleviate nutritional deficiencies. The utilization of bran is an economic and sustainable solution for consumers, processors as well as environment. Owing to its high
nutritional value and functional properties, a wide number of food applications of
rice bran have been identified (Table 16.1). Nowadays, consumers are very enthusiastic about their fitness, well-being, and diet and prefer to consume food with
410
U. Yadav et al.
As RBO is used as a cooking oil in various food preparations; it is very important to
assess its chemical and nutrient composition, nutrient quality, and toxicological
safety. Various studies have been conducted which indicate that consumption of
RBO in the diet does not have a severe effect on absorption, utilization, and growth
promotion in rats (Sharma and Rukmini 1986; Seetharamiah and Chandrasekhara
1989). The bioactive components (β-sitosterol, campesterol, stigmasterol, squalene,
γ-oryzanol, tocopherols, and tocotrienols) of RBO did not reveal any toxicity and
carcinogenicity in in-vivo assays in mice and rats (Tamagawa et al. 1992a, b).
Toxicological effects of RBO have been evaluated in rats by conducting
multigeneration studies in which they were fed RBO at 10% level and reproductive
performance was judged by the percentages of consumption, birth weight, litter size,
weaning weight, and pre-weaning mortality (Rukmini et al. 1980). Also, RBO did
not show any mutagenicity when tested by a bacterial reverse mutation in Ames
mutagenicity assays (Polasa and Rukmini 1987; Kusum et al. 2011).
Studies have also revealed that RBO is not a sensitizer and does not cause allergic
reactions. Ocular toxicity assays showed negative results for RBO, rice germ oil
(RGO), and rice wax. Dermal exposure assay confirmed that RBO and RGO were
not phototoxic and had a UV absorption maximum at 315 nm (Amended Final report
on Safety Assessment of RBO 2006). No side effects were observed in adults and
children even at high doses (1.5–3.3 g/day) of phytosterols from the RBO as they are
poorly absorbed and can effectively be excreted via biliary route (Becker et al. 1993;
Weststrate and Meijer 1998). Araghi et al. (2016) evaluated the toxicity and safety
aspects of RBO in the chicken embryo model. They demonstrated that RBO showed
no toxicity in the chicken embryo model, and therefore, it might be regarded as safe
for human consumption. Oluremi et al. (2013) observed that crude RBO may contain
some heavy metals (Pb, As, Cr, Se, Cd, Ni), and therefore it should be refined to
reduce the Fe and Cu overloads (60 mg/kg. 0.7 mg kg, respectively), as they may
appear in higher quantities than recommended by the CODEX range (1.5 and
0.1 mg/kg respectively).
16.7 Food Applications
The bran obtained by industrial milling of rice is a powder-like material, containing
pericarp, aleurone, pulverized germ, and little endosperm. The rice bran and germ
are rich in nutrients like protein, lipids, vitamins, and trace minerals and can help
alleviate nutritional deficiencies. The utilization of bran is an economic and sustainable solution for consumers, processors as well as environment. Owing to its high
nutritional value and functional properties, a wide number of food applications of
rice bran have been identified (Table 16.1). Nowadays, consumers are very enthusiastic about their fitness, well-being, and diet and prefer to consume food with
410
U. Yadav et al.