2 diabetic patients who were given flaxseed complex (600 mg) for 3 months, and it
was reported that flaxseed complex could reduce the hyperglycemia, dyslipidemia,
blood pressure, central obesity, LDL oxidation, hypertension, inflammation, and
prothrombotic state (Barre et al. 2012). Further, it was reported that due to the strong
antioxidative properties, the flaxseed complex was effective in controlling diabetes
mellitus (Pan et al. 2009). On the contrary, there are several studies in the literature
indicating little or no effect of flaxseed supplementation on serum glucose and
insulin level (Dodin et al. 2008; Barre et al. 2008).
10.6.3 Tumor and Cancer-Reducing Effects
Increasing evidences are being accumulated regarding the anti-cancerous effects of
flaxseed (Truan et al. 2010). Flaxseed lignans are well-known to reduce the
hormone-dependent breast and prostate cancers by influencing cell proliferation,
protein synthesis, hormone metabolism, growth factors, etc. and also angiogenesis
reducing the availability of estrogen (Branca and Lorenzetti 2005). Lignans are
converted into enterolactone (EL) and enterodiol (ED) by gut microflora, which
have potential antioxidant activity (Kitts et al. 1999; Prasad 2000). As they have
structural similarity with that of human estrogen (17β-estradiol), they have binding
affinity toward estrogen receptors (Penttinen et al. 2007). The principle mechanism
of controlling hormone-dependent cancers involves increase in apoptosis through
modulation of estrogen receptors as well as reduction in cell proliferation and
angiogenesis (Penttinen et al. 2007). Hasler (1998) reported that ingestion of flaxseed (10 g) can reduce breast cancer risk. Thompson et al. (2000), in a placebocontrolled clinical study on breast cancer individuals, found that flaxseed and its
component (lignan) reduced tumor growth. In an another study on preclinical
athymic postmenopausal breast cancer mouse model, Power and Thompson (2007)
found that tumor stimulatory effects were negated when the mouse was fed with a
diet containing flaxseed and soy protein as compared to soy protein alone. Truan
et al. (2010) studied the potential effect of flax lignans in breast cancer and hypothesized that its protective effect could be due to weak estrogenic and antioxidative
activities. In a study on 25 men having prostate cancer who were fed with ground
flaxseed (30 g/day), Demark-Wahnefried et al. (2001) observed decreased prostate
cancer cell proliferation and increased apoptotic death of cancer cells at the end of
4 weeks.
Pisani (2008) reported that increasing risk of pancreatic and colorectal cancer has
been associated with high level of blood insulin. By stimulating cell proliferation and
increasing the survival rate of DNA damaged cells through antiapoptotic mechanism, insulin and insulin-like growth factor-1 increase cancer risk (Sturgeon et al.
2011). Antioxidative property of lignans and polyphenols present in flaxseed may be
the main reason of anti-cancerous activity. Alternatively, high levels of sulfur
containing amino acids (cysteine and methionine) in flaxseed are attributed to
reduction of the risk of certain type of cancers by stabilizing the DNA during cell
264
S. Ganguly et al.
was reported that flaxseed complex could reduce the hyperglycemia, dyslipidemia,
blood pressure, central obesity, LDL oxidation, hypertension, inflammation, and
prothrombotic state (Barre et al. 2012). Further, it was reported that due to the strong
antioxidative properties, the flaxseed complex was effective in controlling diabetes
mellitus (Pan et al. 2009). On the contrary, there are several studies in the literature
indicating little or no effect of flaxseed supplementation on serum glucose and
insulin level (Dodin et al. 2008; Barre et al. 2008).
10.6.3 Tumor and Cancer-Reducing Effects
Increasing evidences are being accumulated regarding the anti-cancerous effects of
flaxseed (Truan et al. 2010). Flaxseed lignans are well-known to reduce the
hormone-dependent breast and prostate cancers by influencing cell proliferation,
protein synthesis, hormone metabolism, growth factors, etc. and also angiogenesis
reducing the availability of estrogen (Branca and Lorenzetti 2005). Lignans are
converted into enterolactone (EL) and enterodiol (ED) by gut microflora, which
have potential antioxidant activity (Kitts et al. 1999; Prasad 2000). As they have
structural similarity with that of human estrogen (17β-estradiol), they have binding
affinity toward estrogen receptors (Penttinen et al. 2007). The principle mechanism
of controlling hormone-dependent cancers involves increase in apoptosis through
modulation of estrogen receptors as well as reduction in cell proliferation and
angiogenesis (Penttinen et al. 2007). Hasler (1998) reported that ingestion of flaxseed (10 g) can reduce breast cancer risk. Thompson et al. (2000), in a placebocontrolled clinical study on breast cancer individuals, found that flaxseed and its
component (lignan) reduced tumor growth. In an another study on preclinical
athymic postmenopausal breast cancer mouse model, Power and Thompson (2007)
found that tumor stimulatory effects were negated when the mouse was fed with a
diet containing flaxseed and soy protein as compared to soy protein alone. Truan
et al. (2010) studied the potential effect of flax lignans in breast cancer and hypothesized that its protective effect could be due to weak estrogenic and antioxidative
activities. In a study on 25 men having prostate cancer who were fed with ground
flaxseed (30 g/day), Demark-Wahnefried et al. (2001) observed decreased prostate
cancer cell proliferation and increased apoptotic death of cancer cells at the end of
4 weeks.
Pisani (2008) reported that increasing risk of pancreatic and colorectal cancer has
been associated with high level of blood insulin. By stimulating cell proliferation and
increasing the survival rate of DNA damaged cells through antiapoptotic mechanism, insulin and insulin-like growth factor-1 increase cancer risk (Sturgeon et al.
2011). Antioxidative property of lignans and polyphenols present in flaxseed may be
the main reason of anti-cancerous activity. Alternatively, high levels of sulfur
containing amino acids (cysteine and methionine) in flaxseed are attributed to
reduction of the risk of certain type of cancers by stabilizing the DNA during cell
264
S. Ganguly et al.