RNA vaccines give equivalent protection
against influenza to mRNA vaccines but at
much lower doses. Mol Ther 26:446–455
13. Hariharan MJ, Driver DA, Townsend K,
Brumm D, Polo JM, Belli BA et al (1998)
DNA immunization against herpes simplex
virus: enhanced efficacy using a Sindbis virusbased vector. J Virol 72:950–958
14. Kirman JR, Turon T, Su H, Li A, Kraus C, Polo
JM et al (2003) Enhanced immunogenicity to
Mycobacterium tuberculosis by vaccination
with an alphavirus plasmid replicon expressing
antigen 85A. Infect Immun 71:575–579
15. Reddy JR, Kwang J, Varthakavi V, Lechtenberg
KF, Minocha HC (1999) Semliki Forest virus
vector carrying the bovine viral diarrhea virus
NS3 (p80) cDNA induced immune responses
in mice and expressed BVDV protein in mammalian cells. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect
Dis 22:231–246
16. Knudsen ML, Ljungberg K, Tatoud R,
Weber J, Esteban M, Liljestrom P (2015)
Alphavirus replicon DNA expressing HIV antigens is an excellent prime for boosting with
recombinant Ankara (MVA) or with HIV
gp140 protein antigen. PLoS One 10:
e0117042
17. Roche FP, Sheahan BJ, O’Mara SM, Atkins GJ
(2010) Semliki Forest virus-mediated gene
therapy of the RG2 rat glioma. Neuropathol
Appl Neurobiol 36:648–660
18. Ylosmaki E, Martikainen M, Hinkkanen A,
Saksela K (2013) Attenuation of Semliki Forest
virus neurovirulence by microRNA-mediated
detargeting. J Virol 87:335–344
19. Lin Y, Zhang H, Liang J, Li K, Zhu W, Fu L,
Wang F, Zheng X, Shi H, Wu S et al (2014)
Identification and characterization of alphavirus M1 as a selective oncolytic virus targeting
ZAP-defective human cancers. Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A 111:E4504–E4512
20. Ying H, Zaks TZ, Wang R-F, Irvine KR, Kammula US, Marincola FM et al (1999) Cancer
therapy using a self-replicating RNA vaccine.
Nat Med 5:823–827
21. Van de Wall S, Ljungberg K, Ip PP, Boerma A,
Knudsen ML, Nijman HW et al (2018) Potent
therapeutic efficacy of an alphavirus replicon
DNA vaccine expressing human papilloma
virus E6 and E7 antigens. Oncoimmunology
7:e1487913
22. Leslie MC, Zhao YJ, Lachman LB, Hwu P, Wu
GJ, Bar-Eli M (2007) Immunization against
MUC18/MCAM, a novel antigen that drives
melanoma invasion and metastasis. Gene Ther
14:316–323
23. Bernstein DI, Reap EA, Katen K, Watson A,
Smith K, Norberg P et al (2010) Randomized,
double-blind, Phase I trial on an alphavirus
replicon vaccine for cytomegalovirus in CMV
negative volunteers. Vaccine 28:484–493
24. Wecker M, Gilbert P, Russell N, Hural J,
Allen M, Pensiero M et al (2012) Phase I safety
and immunogenicity evaluations of an alphavirus replicon HIV-1 subtype C gag vaccine in
healthy HIV-1-uninfected adults. Clin. Vaccine
Immunol 19:1651–1660
25. Morse MA, Hobelka AC, Osada T, Berglund P,
Hubby B, Negri S et al (2010) An alphavirus
vector overcomes the presence of neutralizing
antibodies and elevated numbers of Tregs to
induce immune responses in humans with
advanced
cancer.
J
Clin
Investig
120:3234–3241
26. Slovin SF, Kehoe M, Durso R, Fernandez C,
Olson W, Gao JP et al (2013) A phase I dose
escalation trial of vaccine replicon particles
(VRP) expressing prostate-specific membrane
antigen (PSMA) in subjects with prostate cancer. Vaccine 31:943–949
27. Ehrengruber MU, Lundstrom K (2016)
Recombinant alphavirus-mediated expression
of ion channels and receptors in the brain. In:
Luja ´n R, Ciruela F (eds) Receptor and ion
channel detection in the brain: methods and
protocols, Neuromethods, vol 110. Springer
Science + Business Media, New York,
NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-49393064-7_7
28. Schweitzer C, Kratzeisen C, Adam G,
Lundstrom K, Malherbe P, Ohresser S et al
(2000) Characterization of [
3
H] LY-354740
binding of rat mGlu 2 and mGlu 3 receptors
expressed in CHO cells using Semliki Forest
virus
vectors.
Neuropharmacology
39:1700–1706
29. Berglund P, Sjo ¨berg M, Garoff H, Atkins GJ,
Sheahan BJ, Liljestrom P (1993) Semliki Forest
virus expression system: production of conditionally infectious recombinant particles. Bio/Technology 11:916–920
30. Liljestrom P, Lusa S, Huylebroeck D, Garoff H
(1991) In vitro mutagenesis of a full-length
cDNA clone of Semliki Forest virus: the small
6,000-molecular weight membrane protein
modulates virus release. J Virol 65:4107–4113
31. V€ ah€ a-Koskela MJ, Tuittila MT, Nygardas PT,
Nyman JK, Ehrengruber MU, Renggli M
(2003) A novel neurotropic expression vector
based on the avirulent A7(74) strain of Semliki
Forest virus. J Neurovirol 9:1–15
32. DiCiommo DP, Bremner R (1998) Rapid,
high-level
protein
production
using
80
Kenneth Lundstrom
against influenza to mRNA vaccines but at
much lower doses. Mol Ther 26:446–455
13. Hariharan MJ, Driver DA, Townsend K,
Brumm D, Polo JM, Belli BA et al (1998)
DNA immunization against herpes simplex
virus: enhanced efficacy using a Sindbis virusbased vector. J Virol 72:950–958
14. Kirman JR, Turon T, Su H, Li A, Kraus C, Polo
JM et al (2003) Enhanced immunogenicity to
Mycobacterium tuberculosis by vaccination
with an alphavirus plasmid replicon expressing
antigen 85A. Infect Immun 71:575–579
15. Reddy JR, Kwang J, Varthakavi V, Lechtenberg
KF, Minocha HC (1999) Semliki Forest virus
vector carrying the bovine viral diarrhea virus
NS3 (p80) cDNA induced immune responses
in mice and expressed BVDV protein in mammalian cells. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect
Dis 22:231–246
16. Knudsen ML, Ljungberg K, Tatoud R,
Weber J, Esteban M, Liljestrom P (2015)
Alphavirus replicon DNA expressing HIV antigens is an excellent prime for boosting with
recombinant Ankara (MVA) or with HIV
gp140 protein antigen. PLoS One 10:
e0117042
17. Roche FP, Sheahan BJ, O’Mara SM, Atkins GJ
(2010) Semliki Forest virus-mediated gene
therapy of the RG2 rat glioma. Neuropathol
Appl Neurobiol 36:648–660
18. Ylosmaki E, Martikainen M, Hinkkanen A,
Saksela K (2013) Attenuation of Semliki Forest
virus neurovirulence by microRNA-mediated
detargeting. J Virol 87:335–344
19. Lin Y, Zhang H, Liang J, Li K, Zhu W, Fu L,
Wang F, Zheng X, Shi H, Wu S et al (2014)
Identification and characterization of alphavirus M1 as a selective oncolytic virus targeting
ZAP-defective human cancers. Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A 111:E4504–E4512
20. Ying H, Zaks TZ, Wang R-F, Irvine KR, Kammula US, Marincola FM et al (1999) Cancer
therapy using a self-replicating RNA vaccine.
Nat Med 5:823–827
21. Van de Wall S, Ljungberg K, Ip PP, Boerma A,
Knudsen ML, Nijman HW et al (2018) Potent
therapeutic efficacy of an alphavirus replicon
DNA vaccine expressing human papilloma
virus E6 and E7 antigens. Oncoimmunology
7:e1487913
22. Leslie MC, Zhao YJ, Lachman LB, Hwu P, Wu
GJ, Bar-Eli M (2007) Immunization against
MUC18/MCAM, a novel antigen that drives
melanoma invasion and metastasis. Gene Ther
14:316–323
23. Bernstein DI, Reap EA, Katen K, Watson A,
Smith K, Norberg P et al (2010) Randomized,
double-blind, Phase I trial on an alphavirus
replicon vaccine for cytomegalovirus in CMV
negative volunteers. Vaccine 28:484–493
24. Wecker M, Gilbert P, Russell N, Hural J,
Allen M, Pensiero M et al (2012) Phase I safety
and immunogenicity evaluations of an alphavirus replicon HIV-1 subtype C gag vaccine in
healthy HIV-1-uninfected adults. Clin. Vaccine
Immunol 19:1651–1660
25. Morse MA, Hobelka AC, Osada T, Berglund P,
Hubby B, Negri S et al (2010) An alphavirus
vector overcomes the presence of neutralizing
antibodies and elevated numbers of Tregs to
induce immune responses in humans with
advanced
cancer.
J
Clin
Investig
120:3234–3241
26. Slovin SF, Kehoe M, Durso R, Fernandez C,
Olson W, Gao JP et al (2013) A phase I dose
escalation trial of vaccine replicon particles
(VRP) expressing prostate-specific membrane
antigen (PSMA) in subjects with prostate cancer. Vaccine 31:943–949
27. Ehrengruber MU, Lundstrom K (2016)
Recombinant alphavirus-mediated expression
of ion channels and receptors in the brain. In:
Luja ´n R, Ciruela F (eds) Receptor and ion
channel detection in the brain: methods and
protocols, Neuromethods, vol 110. Springer
Science + Business Media, New York,
NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-49393064-7_7
28. Schweitzer C, Kratzeisen C, Adam G,
Lundstrom K, Malherbe P, Ohresser S et al
(2000) Characterization of [
3
H] LY-354740
binding of rat mGlu 2 and mGlu 3 receptors
expressed in CHO cells using Semliki Forest
virus
vectors.
Neuropharmacology
39:1700–1706
29. Berglund P, Sjo ¨berg M, Garoff H, Atkins GJ,
Sheahan BJ, Liljestrom P (1993) Semliki Forest
virus expression system: production of conditionally infectious recombinant particles. Bio/Technology 11:916–920
30. Liljestrom P, Lusa S, Huylebroeck D, Garoff H
(1991) In vitro mutagenesis of a full-length
cDNA clone of Semliki Forest virus: the small
6,000-molecular weight membrane protein
modulates virus release. J Virol 65:4107–4113
31. V€ ah€ a-Koskela MJ, Tuittila MT, Nygardas PT,
Nyman JK, Ehrengruber MU, Renggli M
(2003) A novel neurotropic expression vector
based on the avirulent A7(74) strain of Semliki
Forest virus. J Neurovirol 9:1–15
32. DiCiommo DP, Bremner R (1998) Rapid,
high-level
protein
production
using
80
Kenneth Lundstrom