There are different types of whole-cell vaccines available such as
pertussis, cholera, and meningitis [87]. Pertussis or whooping
cough is caused by Bordetella pertussis, which is a contagious disease. Whole-cell pertussis vaccines are one of the widely used vaccines for immunization and researchers are also analyzing the
potency of acellular pertussis vaccines. Whole-cell pertussis vaccine
is available, and it is considered as a part of the trivalent vaccine
consisting of diphtheria–tetanus–pertussis (DTP) [88].
The reoccurrence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria like
Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and methicillin-resistant-Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and the absence of any
licensed vaccines against these pathogens are responsible for the
increasing rate of mortality. Cabral et al. [89] reported that an
effective whole-cell vaccine could be developed for D-glutamate
of the bacterial cell wall. Along with, they also tried this strategy to
develop vaccines against these MDR associated pathogens. It is very
promising as it does not need the identification of any specific
virulence factor, and it can be potentially applied for the designing
of live attenuated vaccines for other bacterial pathogens [90]. The
examples of different types of whole-cell vaccines are mentioned in
Table 2, and the mechanism of the whole vaccine to induce
immune cells is explained in the Fig. 2. Whole-cell vaccines, along
with antigens, can be sold at a lower price as compared to acellular
vaccines [100].
There is a lot of practice in the field of cancer therapeutics, yet it
is a deadly disease responsible for the death of many people. In
clinical trials, modified whole-cell cancer vaccines emerged as an
important form of immunotherapy [101]. It is more advantageous
as compared to a specific protein and peptide antigen as it exposes
all sources of antigens. Moreover, it removes the requirement for
the identification of the most optimal antigen that targets a specific
type of cancer [102]. Essentially, multiple tumor antigens can be
targeted at a time and generate broader immune responses more
than one tumor antigen. Additionally, the novel tumor antigen can
be identified by exploring the serologic response and immunized
lymphocytes. This will also help in categorizing the significance of a
response to a specific tumor antigen by comparing immune
responses of pre- and post vaccination [103]. The modification of
the whole-cell vaccine can enhance the expression of cytokines,
chemokines, and costimulatory molecules that is responsible for
an immune response [104]. The approach was found to be safe in
the case of phase I and phase II trials in different cancer patients.
The assessment of vaccine induced immunity can be measured by
delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) to autologous tumor
cells [105].
In many developing countries, cholera remains an important
public health concern. Cholera is still a fatal disease in poor
countries and transmitted by contaminated food and water with
256
Punit Kumar et al.
pertussis, cholera, and meningitis [87]. Pertussis or whooping
cough is caused by Bordetella pertussis, which is a contagious disease. Whole-cell pertussis vaccines are one of the widely used vaccines for immunization and researchers are also analyzing the
potency of acellular pertussis vaccines. Whole-cell pertussis vaccine
is available, and it is considered as a part of the trivalent vaccine
consisting of diphtheria–tetanus–pertussis (DTP) [88].
The reoccurrence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria like
Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and methicillin-resistant-Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and the absence of any
licensed vaccines against these pathogens are responsible for the
increasing rate of mortality. Cabral et al. [89] reported that an
effective whole-cell vaccine could be developed for D-glutamate
of the bacterial cell wall. Along with, they also tried this strategy to
develop vaccines against these MDR associated pathogens. It is very
promising as it does not need the identification of any specific
virulence factor, and it can be potentially applied for the designing
of live attenuated vaccines for other bacterial pathogens [90]. The
examples of different types of whole-cell vaccines are mentioned in
Table 2, and the mechanism of the whole vaccine to induce
immune cells is explained in the Fig. 2. Whole-cell vaccines, along
with antigens, can be sold at a lower price as compared to acellular
vaccines [100].
There is a lot of practice in the field of cancer therapeutics, yet it
is a deadly disease responsible for the death of many people. In
clinical trials, modified whole-cell cancer vaccines emerged as an
important form of immunotherapy [101]. It is more advantageous
as compared to a specific protein and peptide antigen as it exposes
all sources of antigens. Moreover, it removes the requirement for
the identification of the most optimal antigen that targets a specific
type of cancer [102]. Essentially, multiple tumor antigens can be
targeted at a time and generate broader immune responses more
than one tumor antigen. Additionally, the novel tumor antigen can
be identified by exploring the serologic response and immunized
lymphocytes. This will also help in categorizing the significance of a
response to a specific tumor antigen by comparing immune
responses of pre- and post vaccination [103]. The modification of
the whole-cell vaccine can enhance the expression of cytokines,
chemokines, and costimulatory molecules that is responsible for
an immune response [104]. The approach was found to be safe in
the case of phase I and phase II trials in different cancer patients.
The assessment of vaccine induced immunity can be measured by
delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) to autologous tumor
cells [105].
In many developing countries, cholera remains an important
public health concern. Cholera is still a fatal disease in poor
countries and transmitted by contaminated food and water with
256
Punit Kumar et al.