400 ◾ Fundamental Food Microbiology
of muscle tissues. Histamine is heat stable; once formed, cooking cannot inactivate it. Thus, if
there is a doubt that a fish is spoiled, the best way to avoid histamine poisoning is to not eat it. An
antihistamine is used to alleviate histamine poisoning.
Ciguatera Fish Poisoning (CFP)
Finfish, especially those feeding on reef and mud (such as sea bass, grouper, and snapper), while
feeding on the toxic algae Gambierdiscus toxicus and several others, accumulate toxin in the muscle
tissues. Liver, intestines, and roe accumulate more toxin than muscle tissues. Consumption of
these fish results in disease with gastrointestinal and neurological symptoms developing within
a few hours. The gastrointestinal symptoms are nausea, vomiting, cramps, and diarrhea and last
for a short time. Neurological symptoms include tingling and numbness of the lips and tongue,
dryness of mouth, chills, sweating, blurred vision, and paralysis. The disease can be fatal under
severe conditions.
Foodborne disease resulting from ciguatoxin occurs in many countries, especially where reef
fishes are consumed. Worldwide, 25,000 people are affected annually by ciguatera toxin. In the
United States, between 1973 and 1987, there were 234 confirmed incidents affecting 1052 individuals without any fatalities; 232 were from the consumption of finfish harvested from unsafe
places. Among the 87 incidents between 1983 and 1987, 69 occurred at home and only four
occurred in food service establishments.
Immunoassays and liquid chromatographic methods have been used to detect ciguatoxin, and
therefore monitoring fish for the presence of this toxin before consumption is possible. Incidence
of the disease can be reduced by avoiding consumption of large fish from the reef, particularly
their inner organs.
Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP)
Scallops, clams, and mussels feeding on Alexandrium catenella and related toxic species of algae
accumulate a heat-stable toxin known as saxitoxin in the tissues. Consumption of these shellfish
produces paralytic poisoning. The common neurological symptoms include tingling and numbness of lips and fingertips, drowsiness, poor coordination, incoherent speech, and dryness of the
throat. In extreme cases, respiratory failure and death can result. The symptoms appear within one
hour and subside within a few days.
Occurrence of paralytic shellfish poisoning is sporadic and depends on the growth (bloom) of
the toxic algae, as influenced by water temperature (approximately 8°C), salinity, runoff, the presence of nutrients, and others. Shellfish growing in shallow water tend to accumulate more toxins.
In the United States, the incidence of paralytic shellfish poisoning is quite low. Between 1973 and
1987, there were only 21 incidents affecting 160 people. Between 1983 and 1987, only two incidents were reported. This has been possible because of monitoring systems of shellfish for toxins
and closing contaminated shellfish beds for harvesting.
Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP)
NSP is caused by brevetoxin produced by dinoflagellate Karenia brevis. Growth of the algae produces red tide, and feeding of the algae by shellfish causes the toxin to be accumulated in the
muscle. Consumption of these shellfish produces neurological symptoms as described for paralytic
shellfish poisoning but less severe. The symptoms appear very quickly (30 minutes to three hours)
of muscle tissues. Histamine is heat stable; once formed, cooking cannot inactivate it. Thus, if
there is a doubt that a fish is spoiled, the best way to avoid histamine poisoning is to not eat it. An
antihistamine is used to alleviate histamine poisoning.
Ciguatera Fish Poisoning (CFP)
Finfish, especially those feeding on reef and mud (such as sea bass, grouper, and snapper), while
feeding on the toxic algae Gambierdiscus toxicus and several others, accumulate toxin in the muscle
tissues. Liver, intestines, and roe accumulate more toxin than muscle tissues. Consumption of
these fish results in disease with gastrointestinal and neurological symptoms developing within
a few hours. The gastrointestinal symptoms are nausea, vomiting, cramps, and diarrhea and last
for a short time. Neurological symptoms include tingling and numbness of the lips and tongue,
dryness of mouth, chills, sweating, blurred vision, and paralysis. The disease can be fatal under
severe conditions.
Foodborne disease resulting from ciguatoxin occurs in many countries, especially where reef
fishes are consumed. Worldwide, 25,000 people are affected annually by ciguatera toxin. In the
United States, between 1973 and 1987, there were 234 confirmed incidents affecting 1052 individuals without any fatalities; 232 were from the consumption of finfish harvested from unsafe
places. Among the 87 incidents between 1983 and 1987, 69 occurred at home and only four
occurred in food service establishments.
Immunoassays and liquid chromatographic methods have been used to detect ciguatoxin, and
therefore monitoring fish for the presence of this toxin before consumption is possible. Incidence
of the disease can be reduced by avoiding consumption of large fish from the reef, particularly
their inner organs.
Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP)
Scallops, clams, and mussels feeding on Alexandrium catenella and related toxic species of algae
accumulate a heat-stable toxin known as saxitoxin in the tissues. Consumption of these shellfish
produces paralytic poisoning. The common neurological symptoms include tingling and numbness of lips and fingertips, drowsiness, poor coordination, incoherent speech, and dryness of the
throat. In extreme cases, respiratory failure and death can result. The symptoms appear within one
hour and subside within a few days.
Occurrence of paralytic shellfish poisoning is sporadic and depends on the growth (bloom) of
the toxic algae, as influenced by water temperature (approximately 8°C), salinity, runoff, the presence of nutrients, and others. Shellfish growing in shallow water tend to accumulate more toxins.
In the United States, the incidence of paralytic shellfish poisoning is quite low. Between 1973 and
1987, there were only 21 incidents affecting 160 people. Between 1983 and 1987, only two incidents were reported. This has been possible because of monitoring systems of shellfish for toxins
and closing contaminated shellfish beds for harvesting.
Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP)
NSP is caused by brevetoxin produced by dinoflagellate Karenia brevis. Growth of the algae produces red tide, and feeding of the algae by shellfish causes the toxin to be accumulated in the
muscle. Consumption of these shellfish produces neurological symptoms as described for paralytic
shellfish poisoning but less severe. The symptoms appear very quickly (30 minutes to three hours)