259
inhibitory effect on guinea pig ileum contractions, while β-lactorphin exhibits a
non- opioid stimulatory effect. Both peptides display very low affinity for opioid
receptors and their actions are induced via the μ-receptor (Pihlanto-Leppälä 2000).
Other Bioactive Properties Exerted by Bioactive Peptides
Maintenance of the physiological functioning of cells and body organs is done by an
important protein called calmodulin (CaM) (Chung et al. 2000). This protein is a
calcium-binding protein with molecular weight of 16.7 kDa and consisting of 148
amino acid residues (Sánchez and Vázquez 2017). CaM helps in cell proliferation,
vasodilation, smooth muscle contraction neurotransmission, and calcium- dependent
cell division (Rasmussen and Means 1987; Cho et al. 1998). Abnormally high levels
of CaM can be damaging to the human body and may lead to the progression of
cancer (Sánchez and Vázquez 2017). Thus, CaM-binding natural compounds may
help in prevention and mitigation of diseases that are induced by increased activity
of CaM-dependent enzyme (Martínez-Luis et al. 2007). The natural CaM-binding
peptides generally have cationic and hydrophobic amino acid residues at the CaMbinding sites (O'Neil and DeGrado 1990). Because of these features, research has led
to identification of food-protein derived cationic peptides that can bind to negatively
charged CaM, and inhibit CaM-dependent enzymes. For example, Kizawa et al.
(1995) and Kizawa (1997) reported CaM-binding peptides from pepsin hydrolysis
of bovine casein which inhibited CaM-dependent phosphodiesterase (CaMPDE)
activation.
Another interesting property of bioactive peptides is anti-inflammation. Bovine
caseinomacropeptide (CMP) has shown activity against intestinal inflammation and
is the most extensively studied peptide. Several animal models have established the
anti-inflammatory effect of CMP at the gastrointestinal level (Sánchez and Vázquez
2017). For example, mice with colilitis and ileitis induced by trinitrobenzene sulphonic acid (TNBS) exhibited a decrease in colonic damage and lower interleukin
1 and trefoil factor 3 levels. Although mechanism was unknown, inhibition of activation of immune cells was consistent with previous literature (Daddaoua et al.
2005). Other mechanisms hypothesized by de Medina et al. (2010) include activation of macrophages and increased differentiation of regulatory T cells by
CMP. Apart from CMP, hydrolysates from β-casein have also shown antiinflammatory effects in a murine TNBS-induced colitis model (Espeche Turbay
et al. 2012). Hydrolysates from whey protein and bovine β-casein are reported to
have anti-inflammatory effects via decreased NF-κB activity in cell-culture models
(Altmann et al. 2016; Ma et al. 2016). A different study on glycomacropeptide
(GMP) derived from milk resulted in decreased allergen-specific IgE concentrations
and caused a suppression of inflammatory cell recruitment in asthmatic rat model.
It was concluded that oral treatment with GMP prevented airway inflammation and
inhibited the development of allergic asthma (Roldán et al. 2016).
Nutraceutical Properties of Bioactive Peptides
inhibitory effect on guinea pig ileum contractions, while β-lactorphin exhibits a
non- opioid stimulatory effect. Both peptides display very low affinity for opioid
receptors and their actions are induced via the μ-receptor (Pihlanto-Leppälä 2000).
Other Bioactive Properties Exerted by Bioactive Peptides
Maintenance of the physiological functioning of cells and body organs is done by an
important protein called calmodulin (CaM) (Chung et al. 2000). This protein is a
calcium-binding protein with molecular weight of 16.7 kDa and consisting of 148
amino acid residues (Sánchez and Vázquez 2017). CaM helps in cell proliferation,
vasodilation, smooth muscle contraction neurotransmission, and calcium- dependent
cell division (Rasmussen and Means 1987; Cho et al. 1998). Abnormally high levels
of CaM can be damaging to the human body and may lead to the progression of
cancer (Sánchez and Vázquez 2017). Thus, CaM-binding natural compounds may
help in prevention and mitigation of diseases that are induced by increased activity
of CaM-dependent enzyme (Martínez-Luis et al. 2007). The natural CaM-binding
peptides generally have cationic and hydrophobic amino acid residues at the CaMbinding sites (O'Neil and DeGrado 1990). Because of these features, research has led
to identification of food-protein derived cationic peptides that can bind to negatively
charged CaM, and inhibit CaM-dependent enzymes. For example, Kizawa et al.
(1995) and Kizawa (1997) reported CaM-binding peptides from pepsin hydrolysis
of bovine casein which inhibited CaM-dependent phosphodiesterase (CaMPDE)
activation.
Another interesting property of bioactive peptides is anti-inflammation. Bovine
caseinomacropeptide (CMP) has shown activity against intestinal inflammation and
is the most extensively studied peptide. Several animal models have established the
anti-inflammatory effect of CMP at the gastrointestinal level (Sánchez and Vázquez
2017). For example, mice with colilitis and ileitis induced by trinitrobenzene sulphonic acid (TNBS) exhibited a decrease in colonic damage and lower interleukin
1 and trefoil factor 3 levels. Although mechanism was unknown, inhibition of activation of immune cells was consistent with previous literature (Daddaoua et al.
2005). Other mechanisms hypothesized by de Medina et al. (2010) include activation of macrophages and increased differentiation of regulatory T cells by
CMP. Apart from CMP, hydrolysates from β-casein have also shown antiinflammatory effects in a murine TNBS-induced colitis model (Espeche Turbay
et al. 2012). Hydrolysates from whey protein and bovine β-casein are reported to
have anti-inflammatory effects via decreased NF-κB activity in cell-culture models
(Altmann et al. 2016; Ma et al. 2016). A different study on glycomacropeptide
(GMP) derived from milk resulted in decreased allergen-specific IgE concentrations
and caused a suppression of inflammatory cell recruitment in asthmatic rat model.
It was concluded that oral treatment with GMP prevented airway inflammation and
inhibited the development of allergic asthma (Roldán et al. 2016).
Nutraceutical Properties of Bioactive Peptides