335
4.2 Challenging Tasks
• Several processes have been demonstrated for the synthesis of γ-valerolactone.
However, the problem lies with its applicability. It is studied as fuel blender and
precursor for polymers. But the high cost of Gvl starting material such as levulinic acid (2–3$/kg) is the bottleneck for its use in the abovementioned fields. So,
finding the application of Gvl, as a solvent in agrochemical formulations, as an
electrolyte in electrochemical cells and as alternative high boiling liquids, may
be economically viable and might result in impactful research.
• Finding the suitable application for novel arylated-γ-lactones and 4,4- disubstituted
pentanoic acid/esters, which are emerging areas in biorefinery, is also relevant
but challenging.
• Even though maximum possible selectivity of HMF has been achieved from
fructose, HMF separation from the reaction medium and obtaining the desired
purity are still challenging tasks for researchers. Also, the relatively higher cost
for fructose compared to other sugar starting materials creates a problem in its
exploration for bulk scale synthesis of HMF. HMF production directly from cellulose is highly desirable and has been presently reported in moderate yields. Its
implementation requires a cost-competitive process. While using cellulose as a
starting material for HMF synthesis, the side reactions, i.e. the formation of levulinic acid and poly-furanics (humins), has to be suppressed at optimal condition
and catalyst. Thus, there is a scope for development in this area.
• Selective oxidation of HMF to FDCA was reported at a maximum concentration
of 3–5 wt% in aqueous medium which is not viable at the industrial scale. Thus,
for this conversion, high concentration of HMF has to be studied with high selectivity of FDCA by implementing technical/reaction tools.
Acknowledgments CSIR-CSMCRI Communication No. 4/2021. The authors thank CSIR, New
Delhi for financial support under the projects MLP-0028 and CSC-0123.
References
1. Sasaki M, Adschiri T, Arai K (2003) Production of cellulose II from native cellulose by nearand supercritical water solubilization. J Agric Food Chem 51:5376–5381
2. Li C, Zhao X, Wang A, Huber GW, Zhang T (2015) Catalytic transformation of lignin for the
production of chemicals and fuels. Chem Rev 115:11559–11624
3. Achyuthan KE, Achyuthan AM, Adams PD, Dirk SM, Harper JC, Simmons BA, Singh AK
(2010) Supramolecular self-assembled chaos: polyphenolic lignin’s barrier to cost-effective
lignocellulosic biofuels. Molecules 15:8641–8688
4. Delidovich I, Hausoul PJ, Deng L, Pfutzenreuter R, Rose M, Palkovits R (2016) Alternative
monomers based on lignocellulose and their use for polymer production. Chem Rev
116:1540–1599
5. Gauthier C, Chiche B, Finiels A, Geneste P (1989) Influence of acidity in friedel-crafts acylation catalyzed by zeolites. J Mol Catal 50:219–229
6. Rackemann DW, Doherty WOS (2011) The conversion of lignocellulosics to levulinic acid.
Biofuels Bioprod Biorefin 5:198–214
Levulinic Acid- and Furan-Based Multifunctional Materials: Opportunities…
4.2 Challenging Tasks
• Several processes have been demonstrated for the synthesis of γ-valerolactone.
However, the problem lies with its applicability. It is studied as fuel blender and
precursor for polymers. But the high cost of Gvl starting material such as levulinic acid (2–3$/kg) is the bottleneck for its use in the abovementioned fields. So,
finding the application of Gvl, as a solvent in agrochemical formulations, as an
electrolyte in electrochemical cells and as alternative high boiling liquids, may
be economically viable and might result in impactful research.
• Finding the suitable application for novel arylated-γ-lactones and 4,4- disubstituted
pentanoic acid/esters, which are emerging areas in biorefinery, is also relevant
but challenging.
• Even though maximum possible selectivity of HMF has been achieved from
fructose, HMF separation from the reaction medium and obtaining the desired
purity are still challenging tasks for researchers. Also, the relatively higher cost
for fructose compared to other sugar starting materials creates a problem in its
exploration for bulk scale synthesis of HMF. HMF production directly from cellulose is highly desirable and has been presently reported in moderate yields. Its
implementation requires a cost-competitive process. While using cellulose as a
starting material for HMF synthesis, the side reactions, i.e. the formation of levulinic acid and poly-furanics (humins), has to be suppressed at optimal condition
and catalyst. Thus, there is a scope for development in this area.
• Selective oxidation of HMF to FDCA was reported at a maximum concentration
of 3–5 wt% in aqueous medium which is not viable at the industrial scale. Thus,
for this conversion, high concentration of HMF has to be studied with high selectivity of FDCA by implementing technical/reaction tools.
Acknowledgments CSIR-CSMCRI Communication No. 4/2021. The authors thank CSIR, New
Delhi for financial support under the projects MLP-0028 and CSC-0123.
References
1. Sasaki M, Adschiri T, Arai K (2003) Production of cellulose II from native cellulose by nearand supercritical water solubilization. J Agric Food Chem 51:5376–5381
2. Li C, Zhao X, Wang A, Huber GW, Zhang T (2015) Catalytic transformation of lignin for the
production of chemicals and fuels. Chem Rev 115:11559–11624
3. Achyuthan KE, Achyuthan AM, Adams PD, Dirk SM, Harper JC, Simmons BA, Singh AK
(2010) Supramolecular self-assembled chaos: polyphenolic lignin’s barrier to cost-effective
lignocellulosic biofuels. Molecules 15:8641–8688
4. Delidovich I, Hausoul PJ, Deng L, Pfutzenreuter R, Rose M, Palkovits R (2016) Alternative
monomers based on lignocellulose and their use for polymer production. Chem Rev
116:1540–1599
5. Gauthier C, Chiche B, Finiels A, Geneste P (1989) Influence of acidity in friedel-crafts acylation catalyzed by zeolites. J Mol Catal 50:219–229
6. Rackemann DW, Doherty WOS (2011) The conversion of lignocellulosics to levulinic acid.
Biofuels Bioprod Biorefin 5:198–214
Levulinic Acid- and Furan-Based Multifunctional Materials: Opportunities…