317
Table 4 Fructose dehydration to HMF using metal salt catalysts
Entry
Wt. of
fructose Catalyst
Solvent
Temp
(°C) Time
Conv.
(%)
Sel.
(%)
Yield
(%)
Reuse References
1
5 wt%
AlCl
3 50 mol%
DMSO
140
5 min
–
–
70.1 5
[101]
2
0.20 M
LaCl
3 (50 mol%)
DMSO
120
2 h
–
–
92.6 –
[102]
3
2 g
ZnCl
2 (63 g) + HCl (405 mg)
H
2 O (37 mL)
120
40 min 97.3
55
53.3 –
[103]
4
0.1 g
LiCl (100 mg)
Sulfolane (1.40 g)
100
2 h
–
–
67
–
[104]
5
1.0 g
InCl
3 (30 mg)
H
2 O (20 mL)
180
10 min 100
76.5 76.5 3
[105]
6
1.0 g
InCl
3 (30 mg)
H
2 O (20 mL)
180
10 min 100
76
76
–
[106]
7
0.180 g
NbCl
5 (0.20 mmol)
[BMIM]Cl (10.0 mmol)
80
30 min –
–
79
–
[107]
8
50 mg
CuCl
2 (0.20 mmol)
[EMIM]Cl (500 mg)
80
3 h
90
93
84
–
[108]
9
1.00 g
CrCl
3 ·6H
2 O (0.39 mmol)
[BMIM]− [HSO
4 ] (0.70 g)
100
3 h
–
–
96
–
[109]
10
0.9 g
γ-Al 2 O
3 (0.3 g) and CuCl
2 (0.05 mmol) DMSO (3 g)
120
3 h
–
–
67
5
[110]
11
0.9 g
Glucose
γ-Al 2 O
3 (0.3 g) and CuCl
2 (0.05 mmol) DMSO (3 g) and H
2 O (0.45 g) 120
3 h
–
–
57
–
Levulinic Acid- and Furan-Based Multifunctional Materials: Opportunities…