no clear trends in volcanic activity on late Quaternary time
scales, although several volcanic spikes marked the
deglaciation.
There is very little direct information on carbonaceous
aerosols from ice cores on late Quaternary time scales. Some
data is available on paleofire proxies, such as ammonium or
levoglucosan, which can be combined with information from
charcoal, preserved in paleosols, peat bogs, and lakes—on
the other hand, an indicator of the source of the aerosols and
precursors, rather than the sink. Finally, the variation of
pollen assemblages archived in lakes and peat can provide
information on the state of past vegetation, which is a source
of many aerosols and precursors. The general picture is that
land biogenic and fire emissions during the last glacial
period were lower than today, at least at high latitudes,
which is consistent with a drier and colder climate, and the
reduction of vegetated areas linked to the growth of the large
ice sheets in North America and Eurasia. More data on the
recent past can be found in snow and ice, showing the
influence of anthropic activities on carbonaceous, sulphate
and nitrogen aerosols (Preunkert and Legrand 2013).
Conclusion
In this chapter, we have looked at the major biogeochemical
cycles that interact with climate: carbon (CO 2 and CH 4 ),
nitrogen (N 2 O), sulphur (SO 2 ) as well as dust. These biogeochemical cycles are crucial for climate mainly because of
their role in the atmospheric radiative budget. In turn, climate
evolution impacts these cycles by changing their sources and
sinks. Past changes are documented in archives such as
sediment and ice cores, which have been described in more
details in Volume 1. To better understand past changes of the
carbon, nitrogen, sulphur and dust cycles and evaluate their
impact on climate, they have been included in numerical
climate models. Going back and forth between data and
model simulations is crucial to unravel the causes of past
changes, and in the future, both more data and improved
modelling should help to better understand the changes in the
biogeochemical cycles over the last million years.
References
Adams, J. M., Faure, H., Faure-Denard, L., McGlade, J. M., &
Woodward, F. I. (1990). Increases in terrestrial carbon storage from
the Last Glacial Maximum to the present. Nature, 348, 711–714.
Adkins, J. F., McIntyre, K., & Schrag, D. P. (2002). The salinity,
temperature, and d
18
O of the glacial deep ocean. Science, 298,
1769–1773. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1076252.
Adkins, J. F. (2013). The role of deep ocean circulation in setting
glacial climates. Paleoceanography, 28, 539–561. https://doi.org/
10.1002/palo.20046.
Adloff, F., Somot, S., Sevault, F., Jordà, G., Aznar, R., Déqué, M., et al.
(2015). Mediterranean Sea response to climate change in an
ensemble of twenty-first century scenarios. Climate Dynamics, 45
(9–10), 2775–2802. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-015-2507-3.
Ahn, J., & Brook, E. J. (2008). Atmospheric CO 2 and climate on
millennial time scales during the last glacial period. Science, 322,
83. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1160832.
Ahn, J., Brook, E. J., Schmittner, A., & Kreutz, K. (2012). Abrupt
change in atmospheric CO 2 during the last ice age. Geophysical
Reseach Letters, 39, L18711. https://doi.org/10.1029/2012
GL053018.
Albani, S., Mahowald, N. M., Winckler, G., Anderson, R. F.,
Bradtmiller, L. I., Delmonte, B., et al. (2015). Twelve thousand
years of dust: The Holocene global dust cycle constrained by natural
archives. Climate of the Past, 11, 869–903. https://doi.org/10.5194/
cp-11-869-2015.
Albani, S., Balkanski, Y., Mahowald, N., Winckler, G., Maggi, V., &
Delmonte, B. (2018). Aerosol-climate interactions during the Last
Glacial Maximum. Current Climate Change Reports, 4, 99–114.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40641-018-0100-7.
Anderson, R. F., Ali, S., Bradtmiller, L. I., Nielsen, S. H. H., Fleisher,
M. Q., Anderson, B. E., et al. (2009). Wind-driven upwelling in the
Southern Ocean and the deglacial rise in atmospheric CO 2 . Science,
323, 1443. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1167441.
Archer, D., & Maier-Reimer, E. (1994). Effect of deep-sea sedimentary
calcite preservation on atmospheric CO 2 concentration. Nature,
367, 260–263.
Archer, D., Winguth, A., Lea, D., & Mahowald, N. (2000). What
caused the glacial/interglacial pCO 2 cycles? Reviews of Geophysics,
38, 159–189.
Archer, D. E., Martin, P. A., Milovich, J., Brovkin, V., Plattner, G.-K.,
& Ashendel, C. (2003). Model sensitivity in the effect of Antarctic
sea ice and stratification on atmospheric pCO 2 . Paleoceanography,
18(1), 1012.
Ayache, M., Dutay, J.-C., Arsouze, T., Révillon, S., Beuvier, J., &
Jeandel, C. (2016), High resolution neodymium characterization
along the Mediterranean margins and modeling of eNd distribution
in the Mediterranean basins. Biogeosciences, (April), 1–31. http://
doi.org/10.5194/bg-2016–109.
Barker, S., Diz, P., Vautravers, M. J., Pike, J., Knorr, G., Hall, I. R.,
et al. (2009). Interhemispheric Atlantic seesaw response during the
last deglaciation. Nature, 457, 1097–1102. https://doi.org/10.1038/
nature07770.
Barnola, J. M., Raynaud, D., Korotkevich, Y. S., & Lorius, C. (1987).
Vostok ice core provides 160,000-year record of atmospheric CO 2 .
Nature, 329, 408–414.
Basak, C., Fröllje, H., Lamy, F., Gersonde, R., Benz, V., Anderson, R.
F., et al. (2018). Breakup of last glacial deep stratification in the
South Pacific. Science, 359(6378), 900–904. https://doi.org/10.
1126/science.aao2473.
Bereiter, B., Lüthi, D., Siegrist, M., Schüpbach, S., Stocker, T. F., &
Fischer H. (2012). Mode change of millennial CO 2 variability
during the last glacial cycle associated with a bipolar marine carbon
seesaw. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(25),
9755–9760. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1204069109.
Bereiter, B., Eggleston, S., Schmitt, J., Nehrbass-Ahles, C., Stocker, T.
F., Fischer, H., et al. (2015). Revision of the EPICA Dome C CO 2
record from 800 to 600 kyr before present. Geophysical Reseach
Letters, 42, 542–549. https://doi.org/10.1002/2014GL061957.
Berner, R. A., Beerling, D. J., Dudley, R., Robinson, J. M., &
Wildman, R. A. (2003). Phanerozoic atmospheric oxygen. Annual
Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 31, 105–134.
Bigelow, N. H., Brubaker, L. B., Edwards, M. E., Harrison, S. P.,
Prentice, I. C., Anderson, P. M., Andreev, A. A., Bartlein, P. J.,
Christensen, T. R., Cramer, W., Kaplan, J. O., Lozhkin, A. V.,
23 Biogeochemical Cycles and Aerosols Over the Last Million Years
295
scales, although several volcanic spikes marked the
deglaciation.
There is very little direct information on carbonaceous
aerosols from ice cores on late Quaternary time scales. Some
data is available on paleofire proxies, such as ammonium or
levoglucosan, which can be combined with information from
charcoal, preserved in paleosols, peat bogs, and lakes—on
the other hand, an indicator of the source of the aerosols and
precursors, rather than the sink. Finally, the variation of
pollen assemblages archived in lakes and peat can provide
information on the state of past vegetation, which is a source
of many aerosols and precursors. The general picture is that
land biogenic and fire emissions during the last glacial
period were lower than today, at least at high latitudes,
which is consistent with a drier and colder climate, and the
reduction of vegetated areas linked to the growth of the large
ice sheets in North America and Eurasia. More data on the
recent past can be found in snow and ice, showing the
influence of anthropic activities on carbonaceous, sulphate
and nitrogen aerosols (Preunkert and Legrand 2013).
Conclusion
In this chapter, we have looked at the major biogeochemical
cycles that interact with climate: carbon (CO 2 and CH 4 ),
nitrogen (N 2 O), sulphur (SO 2 ) as well as dust. These biogeochemical cycles are crucial for climate mainly because of
their role in the atmospheric radiative budget. In turn, climate
evolution impacts these cycles by changing their sources and
sinks. Past changes are documented in archives such as
sediment and ice cores, which have been described in more
details in Volume 1. To better understand past changes of the
carbon, nitrogen, sulphur and dust cycles and evaluate their
impact on climate, they have been included in numerical
climate models. Going back and forth between data and
model simulations is crucial to unravel the causes of past
changes, and in the future, both more data and improved
modelling should help to better understand the changes in the
biogeochemical cycles over the last million years.
References
Adams, J. M., Faure, H., Faure-Denard, L., McGlade, J. M., &
Woodward, F. I. (1990). Increases in terrestrial carbon storage from
the Last Glacial Maximum to the present. Nature, 348, 711–714.
Adkins, J. F., McIntyre, K., & Schrag, D. P. (2002). The salinity,
temperature, and d
18
O of the glacial deep ocean. Science, 298,
1769–1773. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1076252.
Adkins, J. F. (2013). The role of deep ocean circulation in setting
glacial climates. Paleoceanography, 28, 539–561. https://doi.org/
10.1002/palo.20046.
Adloff, F., Somot, S., Sevault, F., Jordà, G., Aznar, R., Déqué, M., et al.
(2015). Mediterranean Sea response to climate change in an
ensemble of twenty-first century scenarios. Climate Dynamics, 45
(9–10), 2775–2802. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-015-2507-3.
Ahn, J., & Brook, E. J. (2008). Atmospheric CO 2 and climate on
millennial time scales during the last glacial period. Science, 322,
83. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1160832.
Ahn, J., Brook, E. J., Schmittner, A., & Kreutz, K. (2012). Abrupt
change in atmospheric CO 2 during the last ice age. Geophysical
Reseach Letters, 39, L18711. https://doi.org/10.1029/2012
GL053018.
Albani, S., Mahowald, N. M., Winckler, G., Anderson, R. F.,
Bradtmiller, L. I., Delmonte, B., et al. (2015). Twelve thousand
years of dust: The Holocene global dust cycle constrained by natural
archives. Climate of the Past, 11, 869–903. https://doi.org/10.5194/
cp-11-869-2015.
Albani, S., Balkanski, Y., Mahowald, N., Winckler, G., Maggi, V., &
Delmonte, B. (2018). Aerosol-climate interactions during the Last
Glacial Maximum. Current Climate Change Reports, 4, 99–114.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40641-018-0100-7.
Anderson, R. F., Ali, S., Bradtmiller, L. I., Nielsen, S. H. H., Fleisher,
M. Q., Anderson, B. E., et al. (2009). Wind-driven upwelling in the
Southern Ocean and the deglacial rise in atmospheric CO 2 . Science,
323, 1443. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1167441.
Archer, D., & Maier-Reimer, E. (1994). Effect of deep-sea sedimentary
calcite preservation on atmospheric CO 2 concentration. Nature,
367, 260–263.
Archer, D., Winguth, A., Lea, D., & Mahowald, N. (2000). What
caused the glacial/interglacial pCO 2 cycles? Reviews of Geophysics,
38, 159–189.
Archer, D. E., Martin, P. A., Milovich, J., Brovkin, V., Plattner, G.-K.,
& Ashendel, C. (2003). Model sensitivity in the effect of Antarctic
sea ice and stratification on atmospheric pCO 2 . Paleoceanography,
18(1), 1012.
Ayache, M., Dutay, J.-C., Arsouze, T., Révillon, S., Beuvier, J., &
Jeandel, C. (2016), High resolution neodymium characterization
along the Mediterranean margins and modeling of eNd distribution
in the Mediterranean basins. Biogeosciences, (April), 1–31. http://
doi.org/10.5194/bg-2016–109.
Barker, S., Diz, P., Vautravers, M. J., Pike, J., Knorr, G., Hall, I. R.,
et al. (2009). Interhemispheric Atlantic seesaw response during the
last deglaciation. Nature, 457, 1097–1102. https://doi.org/10.1038/
nature07770.
Barnola, J. M., Raynaud, D., Korotkevich, Y. S., & Lorius, C. (1987).
Vostok ice core provides 160,000-year record of atmospheric CO 2 .
Nature, 329, 408–414.
Basak, C., Fröllje, H., Lamy, F., Gersonde, R., Benz, V., Anderson, R.
F., et al. (2018). Breakup of last glacial deep stratification in the
South Pacific. Science, 359(6378), 900–904. https://doi.org/10.
1126/science.aao2473.
Bereiter, B., Lüthi, D., Siegrist, M., Schüpbach, S., Stocker, T. F., &
Fischer H. (2012). Mode change of millennial CO 2 variability
during the last glacial cycle associated with a bipolar marine carbon
seesaw. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(25),
9755–9760. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1204069109.
Bereiter, B., Eggleston, S., Schmitt, J., Nehrbass-Ahles, C., Stocker, T.
F., Fischer, H., et al. (2015). Revision of the EPICA Dome C CO 2
record from 800 to 600 kyr before present. Geophysical Reseach
Letters, 42, 542–549. https://doi.org/10.1002/2014GL061957.
Berner, R. A., Beerling, D. J., Dudley, R., Robinson, J. M., &
Wildman, R. A. (2003). Phanerozoic atmospheric oxygen. Annual
Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 31, 105–134.
Bigelow, N. H., Brubaker, L. B., Edwards, M. E., Harrison, S. P.,
Prentice, I. C., Anderson, P. M., Andreev, A. A., Bartlein, P. J.,
Christensen, T. R., Cramer, W., Kaplan, J. O., Lozhkin, A. V.,
23 Biogeochemical Cycles and Aerosols Over the Last Million Years
295