61
toxic for the gametes, was instead safe if loaded into nanoparticles at a therapeutic
dose four times lower than the cytotoxic one (Jallouk et al. 2014).
In assisted insemination, the sperm manipulation, especially the frozen-thawing
procedure, greatly reduces the quality of semen and the reproductive success. In
addition, in several species of livestock, the commercial value of the offspring is
influenced by the sex. Several methods allowed sex-sorting and sperm selection on
the basis of their quality, while their wide utilization will wait for expensive
standardization (Barkalina et al. 2016; Rath et al. 2015). In this contest, golden,
magnetic, and plasmonic nanoparticles have been used in pioneering experiments.
Some of them selectively entered only the sperm in which the acrosome was
activated, and others helped the separation of labeled sperm (Barchanski et al. 2015;
Farini et al. 2016; Odhiambo et al. 2014; Vasquez et al. 2016).
Quantum dots are semiconductor nanostructures that emit light at different wave
lengths in relation with their size. They can be internalized in sperm, in such a way
for labeling and tracking it during in vitro fertilization. Unfortunately, the quantum
dots, as their dissolved components, retained in certain experimental conditions a
high toxicity (Akhavan et al. 2016; Feugang et al. 2012).
The spermatogonia, precursor of sperm, represent a reserve of male gametes, and
can evolve in vitro into mature and fertilizing sperm. Also in this case, however, the
procedures necessary for conservation frequently reduce the sperm to a number
below the minimum required for a successful assisted insemination. A scaffold of
carbon nanotubes or nanofibrillar electrospun, acting as an artificial basement
membrane, improved the production of fertile cells. The non-univocal success of
this method was probably consequent to the mitochondrial damage documented in
a cell line representing the spermatocytes, an intermediate stage of maturation of
male germinal cells (Eslahi et al. 2013; Rafeeqi and Kaul 2010; Shakeri et al. 2013;
Xu et al. 2016a).
Single-walled carbon nanoparticles and graphene oxide seemed to be safe for the
sperm, but spermatogonial cells were more sensitive to the toxicity of graphene
(Asghar et al. 2016; Hashemi et al. 2016). Other nanoparticles were clearly toxic to
the sperm in vitro. In mammals, the fullerenols acted as antioxidant agents (Murugan
et al. 2002), while silver and gold nanoparticles were moderately toxic only at doses
higher than 10 μg/ml for gold, 125–500 μg/ml for iron (Moretti et al. 2013; Taylor
et al. 2012, 2013; Terzuoli et al. 2012; Tiedemann et al. 2014). Titanium dioxide
nanoparticles reduced the integrity of membrane and desoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
of buffalo sperm. The nanoparticles entered the cell and adhered to the cell
membrane along the tail and to the head. The viability was compromised at high
doses only (Pawar and Kaul 2014). The nanoparticles of cerium dioxide, at 10 μg/
ml, were unable to enter the human sperm or reduce viability, but damaged the
DNA. At high concentrations (100 mg/ml), the nanoparticles accumulated in the
cytoplasm, reduced the fertility, and induced genotoxicity through oxidative damage
(Préaubert et al. 2016, 2018). Braydich-Stolle et al. (2005, 2010) studied the toxicity
of a panel of metal nanoparticles on the precursor spermatogonia. The toxicity was
dose-dependent for all the nanoparticles tested, those of silver being the most toxic,
and molybdenum trioxide the least toxic. The corresponding soluble salts were not
3 Safety and Utility of Nanomaterials on Reproduction and Development: An Update…
toxic for the gametes, was instead safe if loaded into nanoparticles at a therapeutic
dose four times lower than the cytotoxic one (Jallouk et al. 2014).
In assisted insemination, the sperm manipulation, especially the frozen-thawing
procedure, greatly reduces the quality of semen and the reproductive success. In
addition, in several species of livestock, the commercial value of the offspring is
influenced by the sex. Several methods allowed sex-sorting and sperm selection on
the basis of their quality, while their wide utilization will wait for expensive
standardization (Barkalina et al. 2016; Rath et al. 2015). In this contest, golden,
magnetic, and plasmonic nanoparticles have been used in pioneering experiments.
Some of them selectively entered only the sperm in which the acrosome was
activated, and others helped the separation of labeled sperm (Barchanski et al. 2015;
Farini et al. 2016; Odhiambo et al. 2014; Vasquez et al. 2016).
Quantum dots are semiconductor nanostructures that emit light at different wave
lengths in relation with their size. They can be internalized in sperm, in such a way
for labeling and tracking it during in vitro fertilization. Unfortunately, the quantum
dots, as their dissolved components, retained in certain experimental conditions a
high toxicity (Akhavan et al. 2016; Feugang et al. 2012).
The spermatogonia, precursor of sperm, represent a reserve of male gametes, and
can evolve in vitro into mature and fertilizing sperm. Also in this case, however, the
procedures necessary for conservation frequently reduce the sperm to a number
below the minimum required for a successful assisted insemination. A scaffold of
carbon nanotubes or nanofibrillar electrospun, acting as an artificial basement
membrane, improved the production of fertile cells. The non-univocal success of
this method was probably consequent to the mitochondrial damage documented in
a cell line representing the spermatocytes, an intermediate stage of maturation of
male germinal cells (Eslahi et al. 2013; Rafeeqi and Kaul 2010; Shakeri et al. 2013;
Xu et al. 2016a).
Single-walled carbon nanoparticles and graphene oxide seemed to be safe for the
sperm, but spermatogonial cells were more sensitive to the toxicity of graphene
(Asghar et al. 2016; Hashemi et al. 2016). Other nanoparticles were clearly toxic to
the sperm in vitro. In mammals, the fullerenols acted as antioxidant agents (Murugan
et al. 2002), while silver and gold nanoparticles were moderately toxic only at doses
higher than 10 μg/ml for gold, 125–500 μg/ml for iron (Moretti et al. 2013; Taylor
et al. 2012, 2013; Terzuoli et al. 2012; Tiedemann et al. 2014). Titanium dioxide
nanoparticles reduced the integrity of membrane and desoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
of buffalo sperm. The nanoparticles entered the cell and adhered to the cell
membrane along the tail and to the head. The viability was compromised at high
doses only (Pawar and Kaul 2014). The nanoparticles of cerium dioxide, at 10 μg/
ml, were unable to enter the human sperm or reduce viability, but damaged the
DNA. At high concentrations (100 mg/ml), the nanoparticles accumulated in the
cytoplasm, reduced the fertility, and induced genotoxicity through oxidative damage
(Préaubert et al. 2016, 2018). Braydich-Stolle et al. (2005, 2010) studied the toxicity
of a panel of metal nanoparticles on the precursor spermatogonia. The toxicity was
dose-dependent for all the nanoparticles tested, those of silver being the most toxic,
and molybdenum trioxide the least toxic. The corresponding soluble salts were not
3 Safety and Utility of Nanomaterials on Reproduction and Development: An Update…