42
alveolar parts of lung and there are no efficient systems to remove them. Furthermore,
the situation becomes worse if the particles are water-soluble. Because they can easily incorporate into bloodstream, they have access to many parts of body. If they are
not soluble, they are collected by macrophages and delivered to lymph nodes. It is
known that nanoparticles deposit in the alveoli, where they are predominantly
cleared via normal macrophage-mediated mechanisms. However, the size and shape
of nanomaterials have an impact on the efficiency of phagocytosis. In some studies,
researchers showed that macrophages did not phagocyte efficiently the general
nanoscale size polyethylene nanoparticles that deposited in the alveolar region
(Keller et al. 2014). After the alveolar region nanoparticles go to the lung epithelium, they pass to the blood and lymph, and finally reach the cells in the spleen,
bone marrow, lymph nodes, and the heart (Nurkiewicz et al. 2006). The translocation of particles is dependent on their physicochemical properties, but it is not clear
whether chronic exposure leads to sufficient exposure to trigger disease
(Poland 2012).
As nanotechnology evolves, the number of nanoproducts application in nanomedicine and biomedicine also increases. Since nanoparticles can be extremely
small and have large surface area, they may access to any part or organ in body.
During this travel, nanoparticles inside biological fluid may be covered with proteins, known as protein corona, which can drastically modify their interaction with
biological systems. Corona mainly consists of hard corona, long-term adsorbed
layer of biomolecules, and soft corona, relatively short-term layer. Thus, it is particularly noteworthy to shed light on the behavior of nanoparticles in biofluids. A
significant point is conformation alterations of proteins during corona formation.
The change can be quite strong depending on the degree of flexibility of adsorbed
proteins. This can cause dysfunctions of proteins and inhibit vital processes. As the
interactions are controlled by the corona surface and the identity of nanoparticle
mainly is determined by the corona, the composition of corona becomes vitally
important. This composition may alter considerably in some cases as it is transported from one media to a relatively different media. In such cases, while some
biomolecules adsorb, some of adsorbed proteins desorb (Kaufman et al. 2007). It
has been reported that protein corona may play role in cellular uptake and toxicity
of nanoparticles (Debamitra et al. 2007; Walkey et al. 2014). This protein corona is
chiefly responsible for interaction with cells and determining the fate, circulation in
blood, distribution and cellular uptake of nanoparticles (Dobrovoiskaia et al. 2008).
For drug delivery, the period of circulating in blood is of great importance. It has
been demonstrated that nanoparticles with specific coronas can escape from being
recognized by macrophages and this prolongs nanoparticles presence in blood
(Caracciolo et al. 2015). It has been shown that recognition of particle is determined
by the protein corona. Srivastav et al. have reported that ZnO with corona containing high amount of opsonin protein was easily recognized by immune cells and
rapidly removed from body by inducing toxicity. Thus, the therapeutic efficacy of
nanoparticle is considerably reduced (Srivastav et al. 2019). A very common way to
avoid reticuloendothelial system to remove nanoparticle is PEGylation. However,
PEGylation does not totally prevent nanoparticles from coronation and since the
S. Tekmen and S. Öksüz
alveolar parts of lung and there are no efficient systems to remove them. Furthermore,
the situation becomes worse if the particles are water-soluble. Because they can easily incorporate into bloodstream, they have access to many parts of body. If they are
not soluble, they are collected by macrophages and delivered to lymph nodes. It is
known that nanoparticles deposit in the alveoli, where they are predominantly
cleared via normal macrophage-mediated mechanisms. However, the size and shape
of nanomaterials have an impact on the efficiency of phagocytosis. In some studies,
researchers showed that macrophages did not phagocyte efficiently the general
nanoscale size polyethylene nanoparticles that deposited in the alveolar region
(Keller et al. 2014). After the alveolar region nanoparticles go to the lung epithelium, they pass to the blood and lymph, and finally reach the cells in the spleen,
bone marrow, lymph nodes, and the heart (Nurkiewicz et al. 2006). The translocation of particles is dependent on their physicochemical properties, but it is not clear
whether chronic exposure leads to sufficient exposure to trigger disease
(Poland 2012).
As nanotechnology evolves, the number of nanoproducts application in nanomedicine and biomedicine also increases. Since nanoparticles can be extremely
small and have large surface area, they may access to any part or organ in body.
During this travel, nanoparticles inside biological fluid may be covered with proteins, known as protein corona, which can drastically modify their interaction with
biological systems. Corona mainly consists of hard corona, long-term adsorbed
layer of biomolecules, and soft corona, relatively short-term layer. Thus, it is particularly noteworthy to shed light on the behavior of nanoparticles in biofluids. A
significant point is conformation alterations of proteins during corona formation.
The change can be quite strong depending on the degree of flexibility of adsorbed
proteins. This can cause dysfunctions of proteins and inhibit vital processes. As the
interactions are controlled by the corona surface and the identity of nanoparticle
mainly is determined by the corona, the composition of corona becomes vitally
important. This composition may alter considerably in some cases as it is transported from one media to a relatively different media. In such cases, while some
biomolecules adsorb, some of adsorbed proteins desorb (Kaufman et al. 2007). It
has been reported that protein corona may play role in cellular uptake and toxicity
of nanoparticles (Debamitra et al. 2007; Walkey et al. 2014). This protein corona is
chiefly responsible for interaction with cells and determining the fate, circulation in
blood, distribution and cellular uptake of nanoparticles (Dobrovoiskaia et al. 2008).
For drug delivery, the period of circulating in blood is of great importance. It has
been demonstrated that nanoparticles with specific coronas can escape from being
recognized by macrophages and this prolongs nanoparticles presence in blood
(Caracciolo et al. 2015). It has been shown that recognition of particle is determined
by the protein corona. Srivastav et al. have reported that ZnO with corona containing high amount of opsonin protein was easily recognized by immune cells and
rapidly removed from body by inducing toxicity. Thus, the therapeutic efficacy of
nanoparticle is considerably reduced (Srivastav et al. 2019). A very common way to
avoid reticuloendothelial system to remove nanoparticle is PEGylation. However,
PEGylation does not totally prevent nanoparticles from coronation and since the
S. Tekmen and S. Öksüz