234
soil, and air, or indirectly through the consumption of foods of plant and animal
origin (Ingale and Chaudhari 2018).
Plants interact directly with the environmental compartments: soil, water, and
atmosphere, all of which can be routes of engineered nanomaterials distribution.
Furthermore, nanotechnology contribution in agriculture is increasing day by day to
achieve a higher and more stable yield of food grains based on optimizing water and
nutrient supply (Scott and Chen 2013). Hence, plants are also subject to extensive
human manipulation and are potentially subject to engineered nanomaterials exposure from multiple sources. Nanomaterials destined for applications in biotechnology or nano-agriculture are sometimes designed for uptake by plants, and therefore
their transport and bioaccumulation through the food chain is plausible (Miralles
et al. 2012; Remédios and Bastos 2012; Rico et al. 2011). Some of the applied nanomaterials in agriculture are single-walled or multi-walled carbon nanotubes and
metal-based nanoparticles (Dubey and Mailapalli 2016; Khodakovskaya et al. 2012).
Synthesis, application, and incineration of products containing nanomaterials in
the food industry not only directly endangers food industry workers but also facilitate their leakage into the environment via different routes such as atmospheric pollution (Bakand et al. 2012; Dasgupta and Ranjan 2018). Nanomaterials in the
atmosphere can deposit on the leaves or other aerial parts of plants, aggregating on
tissue surfaces and penetrating through stomatal pathways (Navarro et al. 2008; Zhu
et al. 2008).
Nanoparticles (such as Zn, TiO 2 , and SiO 2 ) may directly or indirectly pollute soil
through runoff and biosolids, sewage wastes, and plant residues (Ingale and
Chaudhari 2018). Those adsorbed on soil and sediments can interact with plant
roots (Navarro et al. 2008; Zhu et al. 2008).
Water involves nanomaterials by direct contamination of water reservoirs or
through the water and sewage purification and remediation, agricultural-lands biosolids application or disposal into the landfills. In this regard, plants, terrestrial and
aquatic food animals, and human are the main victims (Ingale and Chaudhari 2018;
Magnuson 2009; Klaine et al. 2008). Disposal of waste from nanoparticle production plants may accidentally enter the environment and contaminate soil and surface
waters (rivers, ponds, or reservoirs, mostly regarded as drinkable waters) or underground waters via wind or rain (Zhu et al. 2012). Moreover, using nanoparticlecontaminated landfill leachates and sewage sludge for soil fertilization is regarded
as the main route of contamination of underground waters and soil (Klaine
et al. 2008).
H. Ebrahimnejad et al.
soil, and air, or indirectly through the consumption of foods of plant and animal
origin (Ingale and Chaudhari 2018).
Plants interact directly with the environmental compartments: soil, water, and
atmosphere, all of which can be routes of engineered nanomaterials distribution.
Furthermore, nanotechnology contribution in agriculture is increasing day by day to
achieve a higher and more stable yield of food grains based on optimizing water and
nutrient supply (Scott and Chen 2013). Hence, plants are also subject to extensive
human manipulation and are potentially subject to engineered nanomaterials exposure from multiple sources. Nanomaterials destined for applications in biotechnology or nano-agriculture are sometimes designed for uptake by plants, and therefore
their transport and bioaccumulation through the food chain is plausible (Miralles
et al. 2012; Remédios and Bastos 2012; Rico et al. 2011). Some of the applied nanomaterials in agriculture are single-walled or multi-walled carbon nanotubes and
metal-based nanoparticles (Dubey and Mailapalli 2016; Khodakovskaya et al. 2012).
Synthesis, application, and incineration of products containing nanomaterials in
the food industry not only directly endangers food industry workers but also facilitate their leakage into the environment via different routes such as atmospheric pollution (Bakand et al. 2012; Dasgupta and Ranjan 2018). Nanomaterials in the
atmosphere can deposit on the leaves or other aerial parts of plants, aggregating on
tissue surfaces and penetrating through stomatal pathways (Navarro et al. 2008; Zhu
et al. 2008).
Nanoparticles (such as Zn, TiO 2 , and SiO 2 ) may directly or indirectly pollute soil
through runoff and biosolids, sewage wastes, and plant residues (Ingale and
Chaudhari 2018). Those adsorbed on soil and sediments can interact with plant
roots (Navarro et al. 2008; Zhu et al. 2008).
Water involves nanomaterials by direct contamination of water reservoirs or
through the water and sewage purification and remediation, agricultural-lands biosolids application or disposal into the landfills. In this regard, plants, terrestrial and
aquatic food animals, and human are the main victims (Ingale and Chaudhari 2018;
Magnuson 2009; Klaine et al. 2008). Disposal of waste from nanoparticle production plants may accidentally enter the environment and contaminate soil and surface
waters (rivers, ponds, or reservoirs, mostly regarded as drinkable waters) or underground waters via wind or rain (Zhu et al. 2012). Moreover, using nanoparticlecontaminated landfill leachates and sewage sludge for soil fertilization is regarded
as the main route of contamination of underground waters and soil (Klaine
et al. 2008).
H. Ebrahimnejad et al.