157
activity like inhibition of spore formation, germination against pathogenic strain
Fusarium graminearum (Wang et al. 2017). In an interesting observation, nanoshellmediated laser therapy using multi-walled carbon nanotubes exerted “localized killing effects” on bacteria (Mocan et al. 2016). Here, multi-walled carbon nanotubes
were covalently functionalized with immunoglobulin G. Using immunoglobulin G,
multi-walled carbon nanotubes followed by laser irradiation on methicillin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus, led to increased death rates.
(ii) Modifications of Fullerenes
Fullerenes are 60 carbon-containing nanostructures having great potential in the
biomedical sector (Bartelmess and Giordani 2014). Functionalization of fullerenes
has been attempted in the recent past with the aim to increase their cytotoxic potential toward pathogenic microbes (Prylutskyy et al. 2014). Cation-substituted fullerenes with quaternary amino groups have been shown to be effective against
broad-spectrum pathogenic bacteria like S. aureus, E. coli, and Candida albicans
(Mizuno et al. 2015). In another study, fullerene derivatives have been prepared
using protonated amine and were found to have antibacterial activity against resistant E. coli (Deryabin et al. 2014). Huang et al. (2014) fabricated fullerenes with
two types of functionalities using decacationic side chain and the other with an extra
deca-tertiary-amine side chain. The decacationic side chain-containing fullerenes
were potent broad-spectrum agents for antibacterial activity against both Grampositive and Gram-negative bacteria. Similarly, a powerful bactericidal fullerene
was created by using iodide groups which converted into I or I 2 upon photoelectron
reduction leading to the generation of reactive oxygen species that caused damage
to the bacteria (Zhang et al. 2015).
(iii) Modifications of Graphene Nanostructures
Graphene type of nanostructures includes graphene oxide nanoparticles,
nanosheets, multilayer graphene, and pristine graphene (Al-Jumaili et al. 2017).
Several graphene-containing nanostructures contain oxygen groups which make
their surface negatively charged; hence, for a better interaction of graphene nanoparticles with the bacterial membrane, these are functionalized with mostly positively
charged groups (de Faria et al. 2014). A recent study was conducted where graphene
monolayer was wrapped on silver nanowires and it was observed that this particular
modification led to efficient killing of the microbes (Li et al. 2016).
Graphene oxide nanoparticles have been considered as the new-generation
nanoweapon against multidrug-resistant bacteria (Yousefi et al. 2017).
Functionalization of graphene oxide nanoparticles with polymeric materials (such
as dextran, chitosan, polyacrylic acid (PAA), poly-L-lysine (PLL), proteins, etc.) or
linking with inorganic nanostructures to form nanohybrids (such as GO–Au, GO–
Ag, GO–ZnO, GO–TiO 2 nanohybrids, etc.) has led to increased antibacterial efficiency of graphene oxide nanoparticles (Yousefi et al. 2017).
Li et al. (2016) synthesized graphene oxide nanoparticles with hydroxyl, oxidative, and carbon radical-containing groups and it was found that carbon radicals
containing graphene oxide exhibited maximum bactericidal activity. On similar
6 Exploring Microbial Nanotoxicity Against Drug Resistance in Bacteria
activity like inhibition of spore formation, germination against pathogenic strain
Fusarium graminearum (Wang et al. 2017). In an interesting observation, nanoshellmediated laser therapy using multi-walled carbon nanotubes exerted “localized killing effects” on bacteria (Mocan et al. 2016). Here, multi-walled carbon nanotubes
were covalently functionalized with immunoglobulin G. Using immunoglobulin G,
multi-walled carbon nanotubes followed by laser irradiation on methicillin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus, led to increased death rates.
(ii) Modifications of Fullerenes
Fullerenes are 60 carbon-containing nanostructures having great potential in the
biomedical sector (Bartelmess and Giordani 2014). Functionalization of fullerenes
has been attempted in the recent past with the aim to increase their cytotoxic potential toward pathogenic microbes (Prylutskyy et al. 2014). Cation-substituted fullerenes with quaternary amino groups have been shown to be effective against
broad-spectrum pathogenic bacteria like S. aureus, E. coli, and Candida albicans
(Mizuno et al. 2015). In another study, fullerene derivatives have been prepared
using protonated amine and were found to have antibacterial activity against resistant E. coli (Deryabin et al. 2014). Huang et al. (2014) fabricated fullerenes with
two types of functionalities using decacationic side chain and the other with an extra
deca-tertiary-amine side chain. The decacationic side chain-containing fullerenes
were potent broad-spectrum agents for antibacterial activity against both Grampositive and Gram-negative bacteria. Similarly, a powerful bactericidal fullerene
was created by using iodide groups which converted into I or I 2 upon photoelectron
reduction leading to the generation of reactive oxygen species that caused damage
to the bacteria (Zhang et al. 2015).
(iii) Modifications of Graphene Nanostructures
Graphene type of nanostructures includes graphene oxide nanoparticles,
nanosheets, multilayer graphene, and pristine graphene (Al-Jumaili et al. 2017).
Several graphene-containing nanostructures contain oxygen groups which make
their surface negatively charged; hence, for a better interaction of graphene nanoparticles with the bacterial membrane, these are functionalized with mostly positively
charged groups (de Faria et al. 2014). A recent study was conducted where graphene
monolayer was wrapped on silver nanowires and it was observed that this particular
modification led to efficient killing of the microbes (Li et al. 2016).
Graphene oxide nanoparticles have been considered as the new-generation
nanoweapon against multidrug-resistant bacteria (Yousefi et al. 2017).
Functionalization of graphene oxide nanoparticles with polymeric materials (such
as dextran, chitosan, polyacrylic acid (PAA), poly-L-lysine (PLL), proteins, etc.) or
linking with inorganic nanostructures to form nanohybrids (such as GO–Au, GO–
Ag, GO–ZnO, GO–TiO 2 nanohybrids, etc.) has led to increased antibacterial efficiency of graphene oxide nanoparticles (Yousefi et al. 2017).
Li et al. (2016) synthesized graphene oxide nanoparticles with hydroxyl, oxidative, and carbon radical-containing groups and it was found that carbon radicals
containing graphene oxide exhibited maximum bactericidal activity. On similar
6 Exploring Microbial Nanotoxicity Against Drug Resistance in Bacteria