12.3 Psycho-Social
119
12.3 Psycho-Social
In 2005 the World Health Organization conducted a thorough examination of the
health effects of the Chernobyl nuclear reactor accident [18]. Among their observations was that the long-term psychological effects of the accident on those living in
the area were more significant than were the long-term health effects of exposure to
radiation during and after the accident. The WHO noted elevated levels of depression, anxiety, substance abuse, and self-harm among not only those evacuated from
contaminated areas, but also among their children, including children not born at the
time of the accident.
In Japan, an entire generation of Hiroshima and Nagasaki survivors, the hibakusha
were subject to bias and discrimination for decades following the attacks. In the words
of American author Studs Terkel, who interviewed two hibakusha (atomic bomb
survivors) while writing his book The Good War: “There is considerable discrimination in Japan against the hibakusha. It is frequently extended toward their children as
well: socially as well as economically. ‘Not only hibakusha, but their children, are
refused employment,’ says Mr. Kito. ‘There are many among them who do not want
it known that they are hibakusha.’”(Terkel 2011) There is every reason to assume
that similar stigmatization would affect the survivors of a nuclear attack in the US,
Europe, or elsewhere.
The fact is that the detonation of a nuclear weapon will be traumatic for those in
the city that was attacked and for the rest of the nation that was attacked, albeit to a
lesser degree. The NCRP describes some of this:
The shock of the attack will still be strong and dreadful images such as those seen after
the Oklahoma City bombing and the September 11, 2001 attacks may be fresh in people’s
minds. Some affected individuals will have suffered the death of loved ones. Others may
still be waiting for word about missing relatives. Families will be deeply worried about
their children and women who are expecting babies will be anxious about their pregnancies.
Depending on the situation, there may also be concerns about environmental contamination
and the safety of food and water supplies. In addition, there may be a continuing threat and
fear of possible additional attacks. In summary, people will be shaken and on edge. [7]
NCRP also notes that emergency responders will be torn between their inclination
and desire to serve their community and their concerns about radiation, their individual and organizational ability to respond appropriately, and the potential effects
on their health. In fact, this report cites a number of surveys in which both emergency
and medical responders exhibited a greater reluctance to respond to a radiological or
nuclear emergency than to natural disasters, an influenza epidemic, fires and structural
collapse, or other “routine” disasters; their willingness to respond to a radiological
or nuclear disaster was comparable to that of chemical and biological attack.
Emergency responders also face the threat of PTSD and other mental health issues
during and after response to a disaster of this magnitude, in addition to difficulties
arising from working long hours, lack of sleep, and stress [8]. Hall et al. [9] make
similar observations, and also stress the importance of attending to the psychological
care of both responders and the public, noting that new cases of psychological trauma
can continue to manifest up to two years after terrorist attacks using conventional
119
12.3 Psycho-Social
In 2005 the World Health Organization conducted a thorough examination of the
health effects of the Chernobyl nuclear reactor accident [18]. Among their observations was that the long-term psychological effects of the accident on those living in
the area were more significant than were the long-term health effects of exposure to
radiation during and after the accident. The WHO noted elevated levels of depression, anxiety, substance abuse, and self-harm among not only those evacuated from
contaminated areas, but also among their children, including children not born at the
time of the accident.
In Japan, an entire generation of Hiroshima and Nagasaki survivors, the hibakusha
were subject to bias and discrimination for decades following the attacks. In the words
of American author Studs Terkel, who interviewed two hibakusha (atomic bomb
survivors) while writing his book The Good War: “There is considerable discrimination in Japan against the hibakusha. It is frequently extended toward their children as
well: socially as well as economically. ‘Not only hibakusha, but their children, are
refused employment,’ says Mr. Kito. ‘There are many among them who do not want
it known that they are hibakusha.’”(Terkel 2011) There is every reason to assume
that similar stigmatization would affect the survivors of a nuclear attack in the US,
Europe, or elsewhere.
The fact is that the detonation of a nuclear weapon will be traumatic for those in
the city that was attacked and for the rest of the nation that was attacked, albeit to a
lesser degree. The NCRP describes some of this:
The shock of the attack will still be strong and dreadful images such as those seen after
the Oklahoma City bombing and the September 11, 2001 attacks may be fresh in people’s
minds. Some affected individuals will have suffered the death of loved ones. Others may
still be waiting for word about missing relatives. Families will be deeply worried about
their children and women who are expecting babies will be anxious about their pregnancies.
Depending on the situation, there may also be concerns about environmental contamination
and the safety of food and water supplies. In addition, there may be a continuing threat and
fear of possible additional attacks. In summary, people will be shaken and on edge. [7]
NCRP also notes that emergency responders will be torn between their inclination
and desire to serve their community and their concerns about radiation, their individual and organizational ability to respond appropriately, and the potential effects
on their health. In fact, this report cites a number of surveys in which both emergency
and medical responders exhibited a greater reluctance to respond to a radiological or
nuclear emergency than to natural disasters, an influenza epidemic, fires and structural
collapse, or other “routine” disasters; their willingness to respond to a radiological
or nuclear disaster was comparable to that of chemical and biological attack.
Emergency responders also face the threat of PTSD and other mental health issues
during and after response to a disaster of this magnitude, in addition to difficulties
arising from working long hours, lack of sleep, and stress [8]. Hall et al. [9] make
similar observations, and also stress the importance of attending to the psychological
care of both responders and the public, noting that new cases of psychological trauma
can continue to manifest up to two years after terrorist attacks using conventional