3.6 Flying Out of the Solar System
185
series of Mariner probes sequentially launched in the program, from the Mariner1 to Mariner-10, of which except the Mariner-1, 3 and 8, the other seven probes
were launched and their exploration missions completed successfully. The Mariner2 was launched in August 1962 and passed as close as 34,773 km to the Venus in
December. The Mariner-4 was designed to conduct close-up scientific observation of
the Mars and to transmit these observations back to the Earth, as well as to measure
the fields and particles in interplanetary space in the vicinity of the Mars and to
provide experience and knowledge of the engineering capabilities of interplanetary
flights for long duration. Launched in November 1964, the Mariner-4 performed the
first successful flyby of the Mars, returning the first close-up pictures of the Martian
surface. It captured the first images of another planet ever returned from deep space,
and their depiction of a cratered, seemingly dead world largely changed the scientific
community’s view of life on the Mars. The Mariner-5 launched in June 1967 was
to measure the interplanetary and Venus’ magnetic fields, charged particles, plasma
and radio refractivity, as well as the ultraviolet radiations of the Venus’ atmosphere,
and carried out the explorations in the orbit of 4000 km from the Venus. Sequentially
launched in February and March 1969, both Mariner-6 and Mariner-7 were the first
dual missions to the Mars as a part of the NASA’s wider Mariner program, to study the
surface and atmosphere of the Mars during close flybys, to demonstrate and develop
technologies required for future Mars missions, and to establish the basis for future
investigations, particularly those relevant to the search for extraterrestrial life. The
twin spacecrafts flew over the Martian equator and its South Pole region, analyzed
its atmosphere and surface with remote sensors, and revealed signs of erosion on the
Martian surface. The Mariner-9, launched in May 1971, was a robotic space probe
that contributed greatly to the investigation of the Mars, becoming the first spacecraft
successfully to orbit another planet. Launched in November 1973, the Mariner-10
was the first spacecraft to perform flybys to multiple planets. It flew by the Venus with
the acceleration of solar gravity while entered into the orbit around the Mercury with
the deceleration of Venus’s gravity. The Mariner program had achieved a number of
firsts, such as the first planetary flyby, the first planetary orbiter, and the first gravity
assist maneuver. The structures of Mariner spacecrafts were developed by improving
those of the Ranger probes. All Mariners had a hexagon-shaped base with a diameter
of 1.04 m and a thickness of 0.36 m, and on the back of the base, there was a dishshaped TT&C antenna with a diameter of 0.48 m. A pyramid-shaped metal frame
was mounted on the front, and the solar sails with a size of 5.05 m by 0.76 m were
deployed on the both sides or around.
In 1965, an aeronautics graduate student named Gary A. Flandro (1934−), who
was then working part-time at the JPL, noted that an alignment of the Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus and Neptune which would occur in the late 1970s would enable a single
spacecraft to visit all of the outer planets by using gravity assists. The particular
alignment occurs once every 176 years. As a result, he proposed a concept of the
Grand Tour, and one year later, the JPL was promoting the project, noting it would
allow a complete survey of the outer planets in less time and for less money than
sending individual probes to each planet. In 1969, the NASA created the Outer Planets
Working Group, and officially initiated the Grand Tour Program that would have
185
series of Mariner probes sequentially launched in the program, from the Mariner1 to Mariner-10, of which except the Mariner-1, 3 and 8, the other seven probes
were launched and their exploration missions completed successfully. The Mariner2 was launched in August 1962 and passed as close as 34,773 km to the Venus in
December. The Mariner-4 was designed to conduct close-up scientific observation of
the Mars and to transmit these observations back to the Earth, as well as to measure
the fields and particles in interplanetary space in the vicinity of the Mars and to
provide experience and knowledge of the engineering capabilities of interplanetary
flights for long duration. Launched in November 1964, the Mariner-4 performed the
first successful flyby of the Mars, returning the first close-up pictures of the Martian
surface. It captured the first images of another planet ever returned from deep space,
and their depiction of a cratered, seemingly dead world largely changed the scientific
community’s view of life on the Mars. The Mariner-5 launched in June 1967 was
to measure the interplanetary and Venus’ magnetic fields, charged particles, plasma
and radio refractivity, as well as the ultraviolet radiations of the Venus’ atmosphere,
and carried out the explorations in the orbit of 4000 km from the Venus. Sequentially
launched in February and March 1969, both Mariner-6 and Mariner-7 were the first
dual missions to the Mars as a part of the NASA’s wider Mariner program, to study the
surface and atmosphere of the Mars during close flybys, to demonstrate and develop
technologies required for future Mars missions, and to establish the basis for future
investigations, particularly those relevant to the search for extraterrestrial life. The
twin spacecrafts flew over the Martian equator and its South Pole region, analyzed
its atmosphere and surface with remote sensors, and revealed signs of erosion on the
Martian surface. The Mariner-9, launched in May 1971, was a robotic space probe
that contributed greatly to the investigation of the Mars, becoming the first spacecraft
successfully to orbit another planet. Launched in November 1973, the Mariner-10
was the first spacecraft to perform flybys to multiple planets. It flew by the Venus with
the acceleration of solar gravity while entered into the orbit around the Mercury with
the deceleration of Venus’s gravity. The Mariner program had achieved a number of
firsts, such as the first planetary flyby, the first planetary orbiter, and the first gravity
assist maneuver. The structures of Mariner spacecrafts were developed by improving
those of the Ranger probes. All Mariners had a hexagon-shaped base with a diameter
of 1.04 m and a thickness of 0.36 m, and on the back of the base, there was a dishshaped TT&C antenna with a diameter of 0.48 m. A pyramid-shaped metal frame
was mounted on the front, and the solar sails with a size of 5.05 m by 0.76 m were
deployed on the both sides or around.
In 1965, an aeronautics graduate student named Gary A. Flandro (1934−), who
was then working part-time at the JPL, noted that an alignment of the Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus and Neptune which would occur in the late 1970s would enable a single
spacecraft to visit all of the outer planets by using gravity assists. The particular
alignment occurs once every 176 years. As a result, he proposed a concept of the
Grand Tour, and one year later, the JPL was promoting the project, noting it would
allow a complete survey of the outer planets in less time and for less money than
sending individual probes to each planet. In 1969, the NASA created the Outer Planets
Working Group, and officially initiated the Grand Tour Program that would have