22.4 Solar Cells
623
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 22.51 a Scheme of stacking three wafers for global shutter CMOS image sensor. b Plane-view of the three chips,
back-illuminated photodiodes, DRAM (30 nm process), and Logic (40 nm process). c Cross-section SEM image of the
structure at position of pixel (left) and periphery (right). Adapted from [1868]
(a)
(b)
Fig. 22.52 a Scheme of polarization sensitive CMOS image sensor and b SEM image of grating pattern in SONY
Polarsens™sensor. Adapted from [1869]
22.4 Solar Cells
Solar cells are light detectors, mostly photodiodes, that are optimized for the (large-area) conversion of
solar radiation (light) into electrical energy. A 1993 review of the historic development of photovoltaics
is given in [1870]. The latest data on solar cell efficiencies are compiled in the Solar Cell Efficiency
Tables [1871].
22.4.1 Solar Radiation
The sun has three major zones, the core with a temperature of 1.56 × 10
7 K and a density of 100 g/cm
3
in which 40% of the mass is concentrated and 90% of the energy is generated, the convective zone with
a temperature of 1.3 × 10
5 K and a density of 0.07 g/cm
3 , and the photosphere with a temperature of
5800 K and low density (∼10
−8 g/cm
3 ). The radius is 6.96 × 10
8 m and is about 100 times larger than
that of the earth (6.38 × 10
6 m). The distance sun–earth is 1.496 × 10
11 m. The angle under which the
sun disk appears on earth is 0.54
◦ . An energy density of 1367 ± 7 W/m
2 arrives at the earth in front of
its atmosphere.
623
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 22.51 a Scheme of stacking three wafers for global shutter CMOS image sensor. b Plane-view of the three chips,
back-illuminated photodiodes, DRAM (30 nm process), and Logic (40 nm process). c Cross-section SEM image of the
structure at position of pixel (left) and periphery (right). Adapted from [1868]
(a)
(b)
Fig. 22.52 a Scheme of polarization sensitive CMOS image sensor and b SEM image of grating pattern in SONY
Polarsens™sensor. Adapted from [1869]
22.4 Solar Cells
Solar cells are light detectors, mostly photodiodes, that are optimized for the (large-area) conversion of
solar radiation (light) into electrical energy. A 1993 review of the historic development of photovoltaics
is given in [1870]. The latest data on solar cell efficiencies are compiled in the Solar Cell Efficiency
Tables [1871].
22.4.1 Solar Radiation
The sun has three major zones, the core with a temperature of 1.56 × 10
7 K and a density of 100 g/cm
3
in which 40% of the mass is concentrated and 90% of the energy is generated, the convective zone with
a temperature of 1.3 × 10
5 K and a density of 0.07 g/cm
3 , and the photosphere with a temperature of
5800 K and low density (∼10
−8 g/cm
3 ). The radius is 6.96 × 10
8 m and is about 100 times larger than
that of the earth (6.38 × 10
6 m). The distance sun–earth is 1.496 × 10
11 m. The angle under which the
sun disk appears on earth is 0.54
◦ . An energy density of 1367 ± 7 W/m
2 arrives at the earth in front of
its atmosphere.