variables involved in vitrification protocols and without routine
reliance on available mathematical models that can optimize the
introduction and washout of pCPAs and minimize cryoprotectant
toxicity. Consequently, a bright future for cryopreservation by
vitrification seems assured.
Acknowledgments
Supported by 21
st Century Medicine, Inc. We thank Mehmet
Toner for bringing the work of Goetz and Goetz and of Stiles to
our attention.
References
1. Goldstein M, Simha R (1976) The Glass transition and the nature of the glassy state. In:
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences,
vol 279. New York Academy of Sciences,
New York
2. Wowk B (2010) Thermodynamic aspects of
vitrification. Cryobiology 60:11–22
3. History of Glass. http://www.historyofglass.
com/glass-history/glass-timeline/
4. Shackley MS (2013) Archeological Obsidian
Studies: Method and Theory. Adv. Archeol.
Museum Sci 3:1–243
5. Ojovan MJ, Lee WE (2013) An Introduction
to Nuclear Waste Immobilization, 2nd edn.
Elsevier, Amsterdam
6. Hanford Vitrification Plant. http://www.
bechtel.com/hanford_waste_treatment.html
7. Luyet B (1937) The vitrification of organic
colloids and of protoplasm. Biodynamica
1:1–14
8. Brayley EW (1860) Notes on the apparent
universality of a principle analogous to regelation, on the physical nature of glass, and on
the probable existence of water in a state
corresponding to that of glass. Proc Roy Soc
10:450–460
9. Bruggeller P, Mayer E (1980) Complete vitrification in pure liquid water and dilute aqueous solutions. Nature 288:569–571
10. Dubochet J, McDowall AW (1981) Vitrification of pure water for electron microscopy. J
Microsc 124:RP3–RP4
11. Rapatz G, Luyet B (1968) Electron microscope study of erythrocytes in rapidly cooled
suspensions containing various concentrations of glycerol. Biodynamica 10:193–210
12. Angell CA, Sichina W (1976) Thermodynamics of the glass transition: empirical aspects.
Ann N Y Acad Sci 279:53–67
13. Sakurai M, Furuki T, Akao K, Tanaka D,
Nakahara Y, Kikawada T, Watanabe M,
Okuda T (2008) Vitrification is essential for
anhydrobiosis in an African chironomid, Polypedilum vanderplanki. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S
A 105:5093–5098
14. Hengherr S, Worland MR, Reuner A,
Brummer F, Schill RO (2009) Hightemperature tolerance in anhydrobiotic tardigrades is limited by glass transition. Physiol
Biochem Zool 82:749–755
15. Povey JF, Perez-Moral N, Noel TR, Parker R,
Howard MJ, Smales CM (2009) Investigating
variables and mechanisms that influence protein integrity in low water content amorphous
carbohydrate matrices. Biotechnol Prog
25:1217–1227
16. Mensink MA, Frijlink HW, van der Voort
Maarschalk K, Hinrichs WL (2017) How
sugars protect proteins in the solid state and
during drying (review): mechanisms of stabilization in relation to stress conditions. Eur J
Pharm Biopharm 114:288–295
17. Fahy GM, Wowk B, Wu J (2006) Cryopreservation of complex systems: the missing link in
the regenerative medicine supply chain. Rejuvenation Res 9:279–291
18. Fahy GM, Rall WF (2007) Vitrification: an
overview. In: Liebermann J, Tucker MJ (eds)
Vitrification in assisted reproduction: A user’s
manual and troubleshooting guide. Informa
Healthcare, London, pp 1–20
19. Taylor MJ, Song YC, Brockbank KG (2004)
Vitrification in tissue preservation: new developments. In: Fuller BJ, Lane N, Benson EE
Principles of Vitrification
83
reliance on available mathematical models that can optimize the
introduction and washout of pCPAs and minimize cryoprotectant
toxicity. Consequently, a bright future for cryopreservation by
vitrification seems assured.
Acknowledgments
Supported by 21
st Century Medicine, Inc. We thank Mehmet
Toner for bringing the work of Goetz and Goetz and of Stiles to
our attention.
References
1. Goldstein M, Simha R (1976) The Glass transition and the nature of the glassy state. In:
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences,
vol 279. New York Academy of Sciences,
New York
2. Wowk B (2010) Thermodynamic aspects of
vitrification. Cryobiology 60:11–22
3. History of Glass. http://www.historyofglass.
com/glass-history/glass-timeline/
4. Shackley MS (2013) Archeological Obsidian
Studies: Method and Theory. Adv. Archeol.
Museum Sci 3:1–243
5. Ojovan MJ, Lee WE (2013) An Introduction
to Nuclear Waste Immobilization, 2nd edn.
Elsevier, Amsterdam
6. Hanford Vitrification Plant. http://www.
bechtel.com/hanford_waste_treatment.html
7. Luyet B (1937) The vitrification of organic
colloids and of protoplasm. Biodynamica
1:1–14
8. Brayley EW (1860) Notes on the apparent
universality of a principle analogous to regelation, on the physical nature of glass, and on
the probable existence of water in a state
corresponding to that of glass. Proc Roy Soc
10:450–460
9. Bruggeller P, Mayer E (1980) Complete vitrification in pure liquid water and dilute aqueous solutions. Nature 288:569–571
10. Dubochet J, McDowall AW (1981) Vitrification of pure water for electron microscopy. J
Microsc 124:RP3–RP4
11. Rapatz G, Luyet B (1968) Electron microscope study of erythrocytes in rapidly cooled
suspensions containing various concentrations of glycerol. Biodynamica 10:193–210
12. Angell CA, Sichina W (1976) Thermodynamics of the glass transition: empirical aspects.
Ann N Y Acad Sci 279:53–67
13. Sakurai M, Furuki T, Akao K, Tanaka D,
Nakahara Y, Kikawada T, Watanabe M,
Okuda T (2008) Vitrification is essential for
anhydrobiosis in an African chironomid, Polypedilum vanderplanki. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S
A 105:5093–5098
14. Hengherr S, Worland MR, Reuner A,
Brummer F, Schill RO (2009) Hightemperature tolerance in anhydrobiotic tardigrades is limited by glass transition. Physiol
Biochem Zool 82:749–755
15. Povey JF, Perez-Moral N, Noel TR, Parker R,
Howard MJ, Smales CM (2009) Investigating
variables and mechanisms that influence protein integrity in low water content amorphous
carbohydrate matrices. Biotechnol Prog
25:1217–1227
16. Mensink MA, Frijlink HW, van der Voort
Maarschalk K, Hinrichs WL (2017) How
sugars protect proteins in the solid state and
during drying (review): mechanisms of stabilization in relation to stress conditions. Eur J
Pharm Biopharm 114:288–295
17. Fahy GM, Wowk B, Wu J (2006) Cryopreservation of complex systems: the missing link in
the regenerative medicine supply chain. Rejuvenation Res 9:279–291
18. Fahy GM, Rall WF (2007) Vitrification: an
overview. In: Liebermann J, Tucker MJ (eds)
Vitrification in assisted reproduction: A user’s
manual and troubleshooting guide. Informa
Healthcare, London, pp 1–20
19. Taylor MJ, Song YC, Brockbank KG (2004)
Vitrification in tissue preservation: new developments. In: Fuller BJ, Lane N, Benson EE
Principles of Vitrification
83