subjected to less biofouling (Atalah et al. 2016), a costly maintenance operation for
coastal aquaculture. Those features, coupled with advances in farming technology
(Fredheim and Langan 2009) would seem to present an excellent opportunity for
growth, however, development in offshore waters has been limited. The reasons for
this vary depending on location, but include risk aversion, lack of access to capital,
clear identification of ownership, and unresolved technological issues (Langan
2012). In some countries, like the USA and some EU member states, lack of a
regulatory structure for permitting offshore farms has been an impediment (e.g.
Cicin-Sain et al. 2001; Buck et al. 2003), as well as opposition form environmental
NGOs (Langan 2012).
Similar to the recent developments in aquaculture, the energy sector has
undergone significant changes. Over the course of the last decade, the establishment
of offshore wind farms as a sustainable and economically viable form of energy
production has generated interest in the potential for optimizing use of offshore sites
to include other activities. Thus, consideration of multiple uses of offshore
renewable energy systems in the design phase so that the economic benefits from a
unit area of sea can be maximized in a sustainable way has been a central research
topic since the year 2000 (Buck 2001).
1.3 The Multi-use Concept
One particular area of interest is combining energy and aquaculture-based seafood
production within the same ocean footprint (Buck and Krause 2012, 2013). Interest
in marine aquaculture in exposed oceanic locations has been explored as a standalone activity, however, commercial development has been thus far very limited.
The stability of offshore energy production structures (e.g. wind turbine and oil
drilling platforms) is an attractive feature for a suite of requirements for aquaculture
production, including attachment points for mooring cages and longlines, and for
mounting feeding, hatchery and nursery systems. Though desirable attributes for
energy and seafood production may not exist at all offshore sites, there is likely a
subset of locations that are suitable, acceptable and economically viable. Thus, the
slogan “Maximizing the benefit of a piece of land” (Buck 2009a) is a potential
solution to foster offshore multi-use concepts of renewable energy systems, but also
from any other offshore installation type, such as other renewable energy installations (e.g. tidal energy) or oil and gas (Kaiser et al. 2011).
1.3.1 Pilot Projects in Russia
The first synergy of offshore platforms with aquaculture was initiated in the Caspian
Sea (27 km off the Turkmenian shore) in 1987 (Fig. 1.2a–d), where a fish farm was
moored next to an oil rig (Bugrov 2016). Unfortunately, high operating costs led to
8
P. Holm et al.
coastal aquaculture. Those features, coupled with advances in farming technology
(Fredheim and Langan 2009) would seem to present an excellent opportunity for
growth, however, development in offshore waters has been limited. The reasons for
this vary depending on location, but include risk aversion, lack of access to capital,
clear identification of ownership, and unresolved technological issues (Langan
2012). In some countries, like the USA and some EU member states, lack of a
regulatory structure for permitting offshore farms has been an impediment (e.g.
Cicin-Sain et al. 2001; Buck et al. 2003), as well as opposition form environmental
NGOs (Langan 2012).
Similar to the recent developments in aquaculture, the energy sector has
undergone significant changes. Over the course of the last decade, the establishment
of offshore wind farms as a sustainable and economically viable form of energy
production has generated interest in the potential for optimizing use of offshore sites
to include other activities. Thus, consideration of multiple uses of offshore
renewable energy systems in the design phase so that the economic benefits from a
unit area of sea can be maximized in a sustainable way has been a central research
topic since the year 2000 (Buck 2001).
1.3 The Multi-use Concept
One particular area of interest is combining energy and aquaculture-based seafood
production within the same ocean footprint (Buck and Krause 2012, 2013). Interest
in marine aquaculture in exposed oceanic locations has been explored as a standalone activity, however, commercial development has been thus far very limited.
The stability of offshore energy production structures (e.g. wind turbine and oil
drilling platforms) is an attractive feature for a suite of requirements for aquaculture
production, including attachment points for mooring cages and longlines, and for
mounting feeding, hatchery and nursery systems. Though desirable attributes for
energy and seafood production may not exist at all offshore sites, there is likely a
subset of locations that are suitable, acceptable and economically viable. Thus, the
slogan “Maximizing the benefit of a piece of land” (Buck 2009a) is a potential
solution to foster offshore multi-use concepts of renewable energy systems, but also
from any other offshore installation type, such as other renewable energy installations (e.g. tidal energy) or oil and gas (Kaiser et al. 2011).
1.3.1 Pilot Projects in Russia
The first synergy of offshore platforms with aquaculture was initiated in the Caspian
Sea (27 km off the Turkmenian shore) in 1987 (Fig. 1.2a–d), where a fish farm was
moored next to an oil rig (Bugrov 2016). Unfortunately, high operating costs led to
8
P. Holm et al.