developed world that might otherwise have been depopulated. The industry is,
however, highly volatile and subject to major threats such as disease and marine
space access. Aquaculture has often been branded as a Blue Revolution akin to the
1970s Green Revolution of agriculture. The comparison is apt in terms of the
contribution by the industry to increased food security as production has vastly
exceeded population growth and offset the stagnation of capture fish landings. It is
also apt in terms of the increased use of medicine, toxins and other technology for
the production of natural resources and in terms of species manipulation such as by
turning a species like salmon into a semi-vegetarian. Aquaculture may be seen as a
true harbinger of the human condition in the Anthropocene—an epoch in which
humans have become the main geo-biological agent.
Despite the tremendous growth in aquaculture over the past five decades, seafood demand is projected to outpace supply by 40 million metric tons by 2030
(FAO 2006). With capture fisheries stagnant, and space constraints on continued
expansion of nearshore aquaculture, it is clear that alternative means of production
are needed. There are two potential means by which marine aquaculture production
can expand either land-based recirculating aquaculture systems or development of
the technological capacity for farming in exposed oceanic locations. A Canadian
study indicated that land based systems are not yet profitable for full grow out of
larger fish while they are highly efficient and provide better environmental controls
for the production of juvenile fish (Boulet et al. 2010). Recent investments in
land-based systems in Europe indicate the potential of cutting transportation costs
by locating the industry close to market when energy and water resources are
available. Land-based systems may also help alleviate the problem of coastal land
access by restricting the use of marine ponds for mature fish. Thus, technological
advances in land-based systems have the potential to change the parameters of
aquaculture in the future.
1.2 Moving Aquaculture Operations Offshore
Farming in offshore marine waters is the other potential option for increasing
seafood production and has been a focus of international attention for more than
two decades. Though there are technical challenges for farming in the frequently
hostile open ocean environment, there is sufficient rationale for pursuing the
development of offshore farming. Favorable features of open ocean waters include
ample space for expansion, tremendous carrying and assimilative capacity, reduced
conflict with many user groups, lower exposure to human sources of pollution, the
potential to reduce some of the negative environmental impacts of coastal fish
farming, and optimal environmental conditions for a wide variety of marine species,
to name a few (Buck 2002, 2004; Ryan 2004; Langan 2007; Langan and Horton
2003; Ostrowski and Helsley 2003; Buck et al. 2004; Helsley and Kim 2005;
Benetti et al. 2006; Howell et al. 2006; Ward et al. 2006). A recent study conducted
in New Zealand indicated an additional benefit that open ocean locations may be
1 Introduction: New Approaches to Sustainable Offshore …
7
however, highly volatile and subject to major threats such as disease and marine
space access. Aquaculture has often been branded as a Blue Revolution akin to the
1970s Green Revolution of agriculture. The comparison is apt in terms of the
contribution by the industry to increased food security as production has vastly
exceeded population growth and offset the stagnation of capture fish landings. It is
also apt in terms of the increased use of medicine, toxins and other technology for
the production of natural resources and in terms of species manipulation such as by
turning a species like salmon into a semi-vegetarian. Aquaculture may be seen as a
true harbinger of the human condition in the Anthropocene—an epoch in which
humans have become the main geo-biological agent.
Despite the tremendous growth in aquaculture over the past five decades, seafood demand is projected to outpace supply by 40 million metric tons by 2030
(FAO 2006). With capture fisheries stagnant, and space constraints on continued
expansion of nearshore aquaculture, it is clear that alternative means of production
are needed. There are two potential means by which marine aquaculture production
can expand either land-based recirculating aquaculture systems or development of
the technological capacity for farming in exposed oceanic locations. A Canadian
study indicated that land based systems are not yet profitable for full grow out of
larger fish while they are highly efficient and provide better environmental controls
for the production of juvenile fish (Boulet et al. 2010). Recent investments in
land-based systems in Europe indicate the potential of cutting transportation costs
by locating the industry close to market when energy and water resources are
available. Land-based systems may also help alleviate the problem of coastal land
access by restricting the use of marine ponds for mature fish. Thus, technological
advances in land-based systems have the potential to change the parameters of
aquaculture in the future.
1.2 Moving Aquaculture Operations Offshore
Farming in offshore marine waters is the other potential option for increasing
seafood production and has been a focus of international attention for more than
two decades. Though there are technical challenges for farming in the frequently
hostile open ocean environment, there is sufficient rationale for pursuing the
development of offshore farming. Favorable features of open ocean waters include
ample space for expansion, tremendous carrying and assimilative capacity, reduced
conflict with many user groups, lower exposure to human sources of pollution, the
potential to reduce some of the negative environmental impacts of coastal fish
farming, and optimal environmental conditions for a wide variety of marine species,
to name a few (Buck 2002, 2004; Ryan 2004; Langan 2007; Langan and Horton
2003; Ostrowski and Helsley 2003; Buck et al. 2004; Helsley and Kim 2005;
Benetti et al. 2006; Howell et al. 2006; Ward et al. 2006). A recent study conducted
in New Zealand indicated an additional benefit that open ocean locations may be
1 Introduction: New Approaches to Sustainable Offshore …
7