Kenya 233
figure was reported to have reached 82% (Kamfor Company, 2002). Although
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), electricity, and pellets burned in gasifier stoves
are available as alternative fuels for cooking in urban centres, they have
remained the preserve of high- income households only. As such, charcoal continues to be a major source of cooking fuel for urban households across all
income levels (Dalberg Advisors, 2018; Kojima, Bacon, and Zhou, 2011).
Rapidly rising demand for charcoal has led to a widening supply–demand
gap resulting in unsustainable charcoal production. Current demand, estimated at 16.3 million m
3
, is far above the current supply of 7.4 million m
3
(Wanleys Consultancy Services, 2013). And by 2032, demand is expected to
increase by 17.8% while supply is expected to increase by only 16.8%, widening the supply- demand gap from 8.9 million cubic metres (m
3
) to 10.6 million
cubic metres. The charcoal market chain is a vital source of employment for
over 500,000 people and generates over US$427 million, yet it is barely recognised in formal national economic reporting and forecasting (Njenga et al.,
2013).
Charcoal conservation efforts started in earnest in mid- 1990s with the promotion of a more efficient charcoal stove – the Kenya Ceramic Jiko – by GTZ,
the Kenya government, universities, and other development partners (Karekezi
and Turyareeba, 1995; Tigabu, 2017). But efforts to make the charcoal sector
sustainable – i.e. ensuring the charcoal that reaches homes and businesses is
produced in a way that does not contribute to degradation of forests, lands, and
ecosystems – has only become a focal point for action in the last decade. A legal
framework regulating the production of charcoal, the Forest (Charcoal) Rules,
was established in 2009 (Government of Kenya, 2009). Community forest
associations or other common interest groups that register as formal charcoal
producer associations with the Kenya Forest Service receive a registration certificate. Transporters buying from these registered charcoal producer associations
receive a certificate of origin, which they present to their local Kenya Forest
Service office to obtain a charcoal movement permit costing 500–1,000 KES
(US$5–10) per trip.
In 2013, the National Environment Policy highlighted charcoal burning as
a major threat for arid and semi- arid land and national forest degradation
(Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, 2013). In parallel, the
National Climate Change Action Plan 2013–2017 highlighted charcoal production as a main contributor to GHG emission in Kenya and proposed the
introduction of more efficient kilns as the most significant low- carbon opportunity to reduce emissions; these proposals were also included in the recently
revised National Climate Change Action Plan 2018–2022 (Government of
Kenya, 2013, 2018a). Meanwhile, a similar observation was reported in
Kenya’s Second National Communication to the UNFCCC on its NDC in
2015, with sustainable charcoal production considered to be a key part of
Kenya’s commitment to global climate change mitigation (Ministry of
Environment and Natural Resources, 2015).
figure was reported to have reached 82% (Kamfor Company, 2002). Although
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), electricity, and pellets burned in gasifier stoves
are available as alternative fuels for cooking in urban centres, they have
remained the preserve of high- income households only. As such, charcoal continues to be a major source of cooking fuel for urban households across all
income levels (Dalberg Advisors, 2018; Kojima, Bacon, and Zhou, 2011).
Rapidly rising demand for charcoal has led to a widening supply–demand
gap resulting in unsustainable charcoal production. Current demand, estimated at 16.3 million m
3
, is far above the current supply of 7.4 million m
3
(Wanleys Consultancy Services, 2013). And by 2032, demand is expected to
increase by 17.8% while supply is expected to increase by only 16.8%, widening the supply- demand gap from 8.9 million cubic metres (m
3
) to 10.6 million
cubic metres. The charcoal market chain is a vital source of employment for
over 500,000 people and generates over US$427 million, yet it is barely recognised in formal national economic reporting and forecasting (Njenga et al.,
2013).
Charcoal conservation efforts started in earnest in mid- 1990s with the promotion of a more efficient charcoal stove – the Kenya Ceramic Jiko – by GTZ,
the Kenya government, universities, and other development partners (Karekezi
and Turyareeba, 1995; Tigabu, 2017). But efforts to make the charcoal sector
sustainable – i.e. ensuring the charcoal that reaches homes and businesses is
produced in a way that does not contribute to degradation of forests, lands, and
ecosystems – has only become a focal point for action in the last decade. A legal
framework regulating the production of charcoal, the Forest (Charcoal) Rules,
was established in 2009 (Government of Kenya, 2009). Community forest
associations or other common interest groups that register as formal charcoal
producer associations with the Kenya Forest Service receive a registration certificate. Transporters buying from these registered charcoal producer associations
receive a certificate of origin, which they present to their local Kenya Forest
Service office to obtain a charcoal movement permit costing 500–1,000 KES
(US$5–10) per trip.
In 2013, the National Environment Policy highlighted charcoal burning as
a major threat for arid and semi- arid land and national forest degradation
(Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, 2013). In parallel, the
National Climate Change Action Plan 2013–2017 highlighted charcoal production as a main contributor to GHG emission in Kenya and proposed the
introduction of more efficient kilns as the most significant low- carbon opportunity to reduce emissions; these proposals were also included in the recently
revised National Climate Change Action Plan 2018–2022 (Government of
Kenya, 2013, 2018a). Meanwhile, a similar observation was reported in
Kenya’s Second National Communication to the UNFCCC on its NDC in
2015, with sustainable charcoal production considered to be a key part of
Kenya’s commitment to global climate change mitigation (Ministry of
Environment and Natural Resources, 2015).