232 Oliver W. Johnson et al.
Energy Bill currently awaiting final approval will establish a community fund for
development activities, which is likely to help significantly to achieve greater
benefit sharing (Government of Kenya, 2017). But until this comes into being
and is proven to help, it remains unclear whether devolved government – with
its added layer of political dynamics – will mitigate or exacerbate social impacts.
The environmental risks of upscaled geothermal development include contamination from poor handling of toxic chemicals in the steam; withdrawal of
water from lakes, rivers, and wells beyond their capacity; and degradation and
disruption to natural habitats and migratory routes of wildlife inside and outside
protected areas (see Kubo, 2003; Mariita, 2002; Mwangi, 2005; Ogola, Davidsdottir, and Fridleifsson, 2012). These risks are largely the concern of conservation groups and others dependent on clean and available land and water
resources. They can be – and often are – allayed by enforcing extensive environmental impact assessments and strong risk mitigation measures, such as controlled reinjection of steam into reservoirs; regulated water withdrawal;
wildlife- friendly steam piping designs; use of noise- reduction technology; and
cautious management of toxic chemicals using the latest technology and processes. However, non- compliance can result in severe impacts. The situation
calls for extra measures to enforce the set regulations, and perhaps giving more
positive visibility to those who pursue best practices.
Sustainable charcoal production and trade
The charcoal technological innovation system life cycle encompasses six phases.
Charcoal production begins with harvesting woody biomass from communal
land, government forest, and private land (Njenga et al., 2013). The woody
biomass is then carbonised by pyrolysis in a kiln to produce a certain charcoal,
with typical kiln ‘efficiencies’ – the ratio of charcoal mass output to dry wood
mass input – ranging from 10% to 30% (Bailis, 2009; Ministry of Environment,
Water and Natural Resources, 2013). Charcoal is then transported in 50–90 kg
sacks from production sites to urban and peri- urban demand sites. From there it
is then distributed to consumers in a range of sizes, from whole sacks to 20-litre
buckets to two- litre tins. Efficiency in final use of charcoal for cooking depends
on the stove technology that consumers own and prefer to use. Some entrepreneurs have started to make charcoal briquettes from charcoal dust created during
production, transportation, and distribution – amounting to roughly 25% of
total original charcoal volume.
Historical perspective on charcoal
The increase of charcoal use in Kenya is largely a function of two factors: urban
population growth and limited switching to alternative fuels. Between 1960 and
2017, Kenya’s population rose over sixfold, and the proportion of the population
living in urban areas more than tripled.
6
In the 1980s, charcoal was used by 50%
of the urban population (O’Keefe, Raskin, and Bernow, 1984) but by 2002 this
Energy Bill currently awaiting final approval will establish a community fund for
development activities, which is likely to help significantly to achieve greater
benefit sharing (Government of Kenya, 2017). But until this comes into being
and is proven to help, it remains unclear whether devolved government – with
its added layer of political dynamics – will mitigate or exacerbate social impacts.
The environmental risks of upscaled geothermal development include contamination from poor handling of toxic chemicals in the steam; withdrawal of
water from lakes, rivers, and wells beyond their capacity; and degradation and
disruption to natural habitats and migratory routes of wildlife inside and outside
protected areas (see Kubo, 2003; Mariita, 2002; Mwangi, 2005; Ogola, Davidsdottir, and Fridleifsson, 2012). These risks are largely the concern of conservation groups and others dependent on clean and available land and water
resources. They can be – and often are – allayed by enforcing extensive environmental impact assessments and strong risk mitigation measures, such as controlled reinjection of steam into reservoirs; regulated water withdrawal;
wildlife- friendly steam piping designs; use of noise- reduction technology; and
cautious management of toxic chemicals using the latest technology and processes. However, non- compliance can result in severe impacts. The situation
calls for extra measures to enforce the set regulations, and perhaps giving more
positive visibility to those who pursue best practices.
Sustainable charcoal production and trade
The charcoal technological innovation system life cycle encompasses six phases.
Charcoal production begins with harvesting woody biomass from communal
land, government forest, and private land (Njenga et al., 2013). The woody
biomass is then carbonised by pyrolysis in a kiln to produce a certain charcoal,
with typical kiln ‘efficiencies’ – the ratio of charcoal mass output to dry wood
mass input – ranging from 10% to 30% (Bailis, 2009; Ministry of Environment,
Water and Natural Resources, 2013). Charcoal is then transported in 50–90 kg
sacks from production sites to urban and peri- urban demand sites. From there it
is then distributed to consumers in a range of sizes, from whole sacks to 20-litre
buckets to two- litre tins. Efficiency in final use of charcoal for cooking depends
on the stove technology that consumers own and prefer to use. Some entrepreneurs have started to make charcoal briquettes from charcoal dust created during
production, transportation, and distribution – amounting to roughly 25% of
total original charcoal volume.
Historical perspective on charcoal
The increase of charcoal use in Kenya is largely a function of two factors: urban
population growth and limited switching to alternative fuels. Between 1960 and
2017, Kenya’s population rose over sixfold, and the proportion of the population
living in urban areas more than tripled.
6
In the 1980s, charcoal was used by 50%
of the urban population (O’Keefe, Raskin, and Bernow, 1984) but by 2002 this