haplosporidian has probably dispersed regionally by surface currents, and the
disease expression seems to be closely related to temperatures above 13.5
C and
to a salinity range between 36.5 and 39.7 psu. Pinna nobilis has been recently
included in the IUCN Red List as a critically endangered species (Kersting et al.
2019).
Finally, a mass mortality episode of echinoderms was detected in August 2009
affecting to the starfish Astropecten aranciacus and the sea urchins Spatangus
purpureus, Paracentrotus lividus and Sphaerechinus granularis in Almuñécar,
Granada coast (Tierno de Figueroa and Sánchez-Tocino 2010). This event coincided
with a sudden increase in sea temperature, reaching values higher than those ever
registered in the previous 25 years.
Effects of mass mortalities may extend from the directly affected species to other
invertebrates linked by trophic or symbiotic relationships. Pinna nobilis, for example, may host three symbiotic, commensal or mutualistic, decapod crustaceans: the
shrimp Pontonia pinnophylax and the crabs Nepinnotheres pinnotheres and
Pinnotheres pisum (Rabaoui et al. 2008; Trigos and Vicente 2018). Pontonia
pinnophylax is a Mediterranean species that could also live in association with
sponges and ascidians (Trigos and Vicente 2018), Nepinnotheres pinnotheres may
live also in ascidians, and Pinnotheres pisum lives also in mussels, oysters and other
bivalves (Rabaoui et al. 2008; Becker and Türkay 2017). Local extinction of the fan
mussel predictably carries at least a population decline of these decapod species or
even their local extinction (co-extinction). This is especially so for Pontonia
pinnophylax, since Calafiore et al. (1991) revealed that the larval development of
this shrimp is stopped in the zoea phase in the absence of Pinna nobilis (Trigos and
Vicente 2018). Similar effects are predictable for specialized gastropods preying on
sponges. For example, the doridoidean nudibranch Peltodoris atromaculata
(Fig. 10.17) feeds on Petrosia ficiformis (Ros 1978) and Paradoris indecora on
Ircinia variabilis (Marín et al. 1997), whereas Trapania maculata and T. hispalensis
(Fig. 10.20) are common on I. variabilis and Sarcotragus spinosulus but feed on
Entoprocta of the genus Loxosomella living on the sponges (Sánchez Tocino and
Cervera 2006). Many other doridoideans feed on sponges (e.g., Megina et al. 2002;
Gemballa and Schermutzki 2004), as also do gastropods belonging to the families
Triphoridae or Cerithiopsidae (Wells 1998; Bouchet et al. 2010). Similarly, other
gastropods are more or less specific predators of anthozoans, such as Ovulidae
(Fig. 10.20), which feed on several species of octocorals (Fehse et al. 2010; Priori
et al. 2014); Coralliophilinae (Muricidae, Fig. 10.20), which prey on stony corals,
sea anemones, antipatharians or octocorals (Richter and Luque 2002, 2004); or
Epitoniidae that only feed on stony corals or sea anemones (Richter and Luque
2004). Some nudibranchs also feed on diverse anthozoans including gorgonians
(McDonald and Nybakken 1997, 1999; Goodheart et al. 2017). Finally, echinoderm
mass mortalities may affect, among others, to the specialized parasitic gastropods of
the family Eulimidae (Fig. 10.20) that feed on many species of this group (Warén
1983).
10 Invertebrates: The Realm of Diversity
415
disease expression seems to be closely related to temperatures above 13.5
C and
to a salinity range between 36.5 and 39.7 psu. Pinna nobilis has been recently
included in the IUCN Red List as a critically endangered species (Kersting et al.
2019).
Finally, a mass mortality episode of echinoderms was detected in August 2009
affecting to the starfish Astropecten aranciacus and the sea urchins Spatangus
purpureus, Paracentrotus lividus and Sphaerechinus granularis in Almuñécar,
Granada coast (Tierno de Figueroa and Sánchez-Tocino 2010). This event coincided
with a sudden increase in sea temperature, reaching values higher than those ever
registered in the previous 25 years.
Effects of mass mortalities may extend from the directly affected species to other
invertebrates linked by trophic or symbiotic relationships. Pinna nobilis, for example, may host three symbiotic, commensal or mutualistic, decapod crustaceans: the
shrimp Pontonia pinnophylax and the crabs Nepinnotheres pinnotheres and
Pinnotheres pisum (Rabaoui et al. 2008; Trigos and Vicente 2018). Pontonia
pinnophylax is a Mediterranean species that could also live in association with
sponges and ascidians (Trigos and Vicente 2018), Nepinnotheres pinnotheres may
live also in ascidians, and Pinnotheres pisum lives also in mussels, oysters and other
bivalves (Rabaoui et al. 2008; Becker and Türkay 2017). Local extinction of the fan
mussel predictably carries at least a population decline of these decapod species or
even their local extinction (co-extinction). This is especially so for Pontonia
pinnophylax, since Calafiore et al. (1991) revealed that the larval development of
this shrimp is stopped in the zoea phase in the absence of Pinna nobilis (Trigos and
Vicente 2018). Similar effects are predictable for specialized gastropods preying on
sponges. For example, the doridoidean nudibranch Peltodoris atromaculata
(Fig. 10.17) feeds on Petrosia ficiformis (Ros 1978) and Paradoris indecora on
Ircinia variabilis (Marín et al. 1997), whereas Trapania maculata and T. hispalensis
(Fig. 10.20) are common on I. variabilis and Sarcotragus spinosulus but feed on
Entoprocta of the genus Loxosomella living on the sponges (Sánchez Tocino and
Cervera 2006). Many other doridoideans feed on sponges (e.g., Megina et al. 2002;
Gemballa and Schermutzki 2004), as also do gastropods belonging to the families
Triphoridae or Cerithiopsidae (Wells 1998; Bouchet et al. 2010). Similarly, other
gastropods are more or less specific predators of anthozoans, such as Ovulidae
(Fig. 10.20), which feed on several species of octocorals (Fehse et al. 2010; Priori
et al. 2014); Coralliophilinae (Muricidae, Fig. 10.20), which prey on stony corals,
sea anemones, antipatharians or octocorals (Richter and Luque 2002, 2004); or
Epitoniidae that only feed on stony corals or sea anemones (Richter and Luque
2004). Some nudibranchs also feed on diverse anthozoans including gorgonians
(McDonald and Nybakken 1997, 1999; Goodheart et al. 2017). Finally, echinoderm
mass mortalities may affect, among others, to the specialized parasitic gastropods of
the family Eulimidae (Fig. 10.20) that feed on many species of this group (Warén
1983).
10 Invertebrates: The Realm of Diversity
415