equinoxes and lunar standstills (e.g. the Sun Dagger on Fajada Butte) (Farmer 2003;
Sofaer 1997).
Not only depleting resources in the surroundings influenced the culture and, in the
end, the abandonment of Chaco Canyon, but a combination of several factors (Dean
2001). Well documented are unfortunate changes of environmental conditions in the
twelfth century (Mills 2002). Multidecadal droughts occurred around 1130 AD as
well as 1250 AD (Benson et al. 2006; Dean 2001). Erosion, as a result of deforestation, probably destroyed much of the arable land (Betancourt and van Devender
1981). Field salinization, due to the predominant use of Chaco River water for
irrigation instead of less saline runoff water (Vivian 2001), aggravated the situation.
In addition, the incising Chaco River lowered the water level below field level and
reduced the already small amount of water available for irrigation (Benson et al.
2006; Schlanger and Wilshusen 1996). Finally, the Chaco Canyon culture was not
able to survive in the region under these environmental conditions.
2.4 Education Systems of the Ancient Greece, Alexandria
and Roman Empire
In Antiquity, philosophers and scholars tried to understand their world by studying
and observing nature and by discussing their insights and interpretations with other
scholars and their students. They discussed observations and exchanged ideas and
experiences. A new way of scientific thinking developed. Ideas and concepts were
formulated, reviewed and accepted or rejected. This laid the fundament of European
science (Breidbach 2015). During this time philosophy was the leading discipline,
and included topics such as astronomy, climatology, natural history, plant and
animal sciences, geography and others. Knowledge was mainly transferred orally,
e.g. in philosophical schools. The general education consisted of several consecutive
schools. Most students attended the school of letters to learn reading and writing.
Afterwards, a person could continue with a more specialized study at the school of
the grammarian, followed by the school of rhetoric. For final education a person
attended the school of the philosopher. Education at the last two schools was
expensive. Therefore, only a few could afford attending (Watts 2006). The central
educational institutions of the ancient world taught the entire science programme.
Centres were the Mouseion with attached library in Alexandria, as well as Plato’s
Academy and Aristotle’s Lyceum in Athens. Other large and important schools of
philosophy existed for example in Ionia and Constantinople (Vinzent 2000).
Another possibility for education was the Gymnasion in Greece.
Alexandria was famous for its central educational and research institutions, the
Royal Library and the Mouseion. Both institutions already existed in the first century
BC. During flourishing times, the library contained about 400,000–500,000 papyrus
rolls. After being repeatedly damaged by fires, the Arabs, who conquered
History of Environmental Communication and Education
49
Sofaer 1997).
Not only depleting resources in the surroundings influenced the culture and, in the
end, the abandonment of Chaco Canyon, but a combination of several factors (Dean
2001). Well documented are unfortunate changes of environmental conditions in the
twelfth century (Mills 2002). Multidecadal droughts occurred around 1130 AD as
well as 1250 AD (Benson et al. 2006; Dean 2001). Erosion, as a result of deforestation, probably destroyed much of the arable land (Betancourt and van Devender
1981). Field salinization, due to the predominant use of Chaco River water for
irrigation instead of less saline runoff water (Vivian 2001), aggravated the situation.
In addition, the incising Chaco River lowered the water level below field level and
reduced the already small amount of water available for irrigation (Benson et al.
2006; Schlanger and Wilshusen 1996). Finally, the Chaco Canyon culture was not
able to survive in the region under these environmental conditions.
2.4 Education Systems of the Ancient Greece, Alexandria
and Roman Empire
In Antiquity, philosophers and scholars tried to understand their world by studying
and observing nature and by discussing their insights and interpretations with other
scholars and their students. They discussed observations and exchanged ideas and
experiences. A new way of scientific thinking developed. Ideas and concepts were
formulated, reviewed and accepted or rejected. This laid the fundament of European
science (Breidbach 2015). During this time philosophy was the leading discipline,
and included topics such as astronomy, climatology, natural history, plant and
animal sciences, geography and others. Knowledge was mainly transferred orally,
e.g. in philosophical schools. The general education consisted of several consecutive
schools. Most students attended the school of letters to learn reading and writing.
Afterwards, a person could continue with a more specialized study at the school of
the grammarian, followed by the school of rhetoric. For final education a person
attended the school of the philosopher. Education at the last two schools was
expensive. Therefore, only a few could afford attending (Watts 2006). The central
educational institutions of the ancient world taught the entire science programme.
Centres were the Mouseion with attached library in Alexandria, as well as Plato’s
Academy and Aristotle’s Lyceum in Athens. Other large and important schools of
philosophy existed for example in Ionia and Constantinople (Vinzent 2000).
Another possibility for education was the Gymnasion in Greece.
Alexandria was famous for its central educational and research institutions, the
Royal Library and the Mouseion. Both institutions already existed in the first century
BC. During flourishing times, the library contained about 400,000–500,000 papyrus
rolls. After being repeatedly damaged by fires, the Arabs, who conquered
History of Environmental Communication and Education
49