The Chaco Canyon Culture lived in the area of a valley in the catchment area of
the upper San Juan River in the state of New Mexico, which was the ritual centre of a
large system of Chacoan communities (Mills 2002; Pauketat and Emerson 2007;
Sofaer 1997; van Dyke 2004). Construction of extensive roads and the Chaco
pueblos, great houses, started approximately 900 AD and finished at about
1130 AD, the presumed end of inhabitation of Chaco Canyon (Dean 2001; Mills
2002; Pauketat and Emerson 2007; Sofaer 1997).
When building the first great houses, the surroundings of Chaco Canyon
consisted of pinyon-juniper woodland and ponderosa pine forests. The timber of
the woodlands was used for architecture and fuel until these resources were fully
exploited. Around the 910s, deforestation already exceeded the natural regeneration
rate (Betancourt and van Devender 1981; Dean 2001). On this account, the Chaco
Canyon culture established an elaborate road system to obtain resources from
outlying communities and mountain slopes (Betancourt and van Devender 1981).
The situation aggravated due to a semiarid climate, low precipitations, short growing
seasons, several droughts and unfavourable soil conditions such as high salinity and
pH (Benson et al. 2006; Dean 2001; Schlanger and Wilshusen 1996). In trying to
overcome these environmental conditions and to conduct agriculture, water control
features were established (Benson et al. 2006; Mills 2002). Precipitation, seasonal
runoffs and water from the ephemeral Chaco River were used for agriculture
(Benson et al. 2006; Schreiber 1997; Vivian 2001). “Elaborate water collection
and distribution systems” (Dean 2001, p. 35) as well as different methods of farming
with runoffs and floodwater were used, e.g. canals, gridded gardens, terraces, ditches
and dams (Benson et al. 2006; Mills 2002; Schreiber 1997; Vivian 2001).
To obtain resources from outside the canyon and to connect with outlying
communities, an elaborated road system was built (Betancourt and van Devender
1981; Schreiber 1997). Next to this economic function, Chacoan roads had a
symbolic meaning as ritual pathways and for cosmology, connecting structures
and leading directly to prominent landforms or natural features such as springs,
lakes, and pinnacles (Marshall 1997; Mills 2002). Of particular importance were the
four cardinal directions completed by the vertical directions up and down,
representing the physical, social, spiritual, upper and lower worlds (van Dyke
2004), as well as the directions of solar und lunar cycles (Sofaer 1997). Especially
the north-south meridian, expressed through the Great North Road and the Great
South Road, the two longest road segments, seemed to be important axes. From
Chaco Canyon both roads extend over about 50 km in each direction and terminate at
sacred places—the northern road at Kutz Canyon and the southern one near Hosta
Butte (Marshall 1997; Sofaer 1997). Not only roads, but the entire architecture of
Chaco Canyon expresses the archaeoastronomical alignments of the Chaco Canyon
culture (Farmer 2003; Pauketat and Emerson 2007; Sofaer 1997; van Dyke 2004).
Astronomy was the determining factor for the placement and internal construction of
the great houses as well as the road system (Sofaer 1997; Stein et al. 1997). Building
walls were aligned according to astronomical events (e.g. Pueblo Alto, Pueblo
Bonito) (Farmer 2003; Marshall 1997; Sofaer 1997). The internal geometry of
major buildings corresponds to solar and lunar cycles, petroglyphs record solstices,
48
C. Börtitz and C. Hobohm
the upper San Juan River in the state of New Mexico, which was the ritual centre of a
large system of Chacoan communities (Mills 2002; Pauketat and Emerson 2007;
Sofaer 1997; van Dyke 2004). Construction of extensive roads and the Chaco
pueblos, great houses, started approximately 900 AD and finished at about
1130 AD, the presumed end of inhabitation of Chaco Canyon (Dean 2001; Mills
2002; Pauketat and Emerson 2007; Sofaer 1997).
When building the first great houses, the surroundings of Chaco Canyon
consisted of pinyon-juniper woodland and ponderosa pine forests. The timber of
the woodlands was used for architecture and fuel until these resources were fully
exploited. Around the 910s, deforestation already exceeded the natural regeneration
rate (Betancourt and van Devender 1981; Dean 2001). On this account, the Chaco
Canyon culture established an elaborate road system to obtain resources from
outlying communities and mountain slopes (Betancourt and van Devender 1981).
The situation aggravated due to a semiarid climate, low precipitations, short growing
seasons, several droughts and unfavourable soil conditions such as high salinity and
pH (Benson et al. 2006; Dean 2001; Schlanger and Wilshusen 1996). In trying to
overcome these environmental conditions and to conduct agriculture, water control
features were established (Benson et al. 2006; Mills 2002). Precipitation, seasonal
runoffs and water from the ephemeral Chaco River were used for agriculture
(Benson et al. 2006; Schreiber 1997; Vivian 2001). “Elaborate water collection
and distribution systems” (Dean 2001, p. 35) as well as different methods of farming
with runoffs and floodwater were used, e.g. canals, gridded gardens, terraces, ditches
and dams (Benson et al. 2006; Mills 2002; Schreiber 1997; Vivian 2001).
To obtain resources from outside the canyon and to connect with outlying
communities, an elaborated road system was built (Betancourt and van Devender
1981; Schreiber 1997). Next to this economic function, Chacoan roads had a
symbolic meaning as ritual pathways and for cosmology, connecting structures
and leading directly to prominent landforms or natural features such as springs,
lakes, and pinnacles (Marshall 1997; Mills 2002). Of particular importance were the
four cardinal directions completed by the vertical directions up and down,
representing the physical, social, spiritual, upper and lower worlds (van Dyke
2004), as well as the directions of solar und lunar cycles (Sofaer 1997). Especially
the north-south meridian, expressed through the Great North Road and the Great
South Road, the two longest road segments, seemed to be important axes. From
Chaco Canyon both roads extend over about 50 km in each direction and terminate at
sacred places—the northern road at Kutz Canyon and the southern one near Hosta
Butte (Marshall 1997; Sofaer 1997). Not only roads, but the entire architecture of
Chaco Canyon expresses the archaeoastronomical alignments of the Chaco Canyon
culture (Farmer 2003; Pauketat and Emerson 2007; Sofaer 1997; van Dyke 2004).
Astronomy was the determining factor for the placement and internal construction of
the great houses as well as the road system (Sofaer 1997; Stein et al. 1997). Building
walls were aligned according to astronomical events (e.g. Pueblo Alto, Pueblo
Bonito) (Farmer 2003; Marshall 1997; Sofaer 1997). The internal geometry of
major buildings corresponds to solar and lunar cycles, petroglyphs record solstices,
48
C. Börtitz and C. Hobohm