and also other groups of animals (birds, insects) visited and used the northern and
high mountain regions only during summer. In autumn and winter they migrated to
winter pastures with low snow cover in the semi-desert and dry steppe zones of the S
and in the lowlands.
In general, Russians and Europeans in Kazakhstan promoted crop cultivation
while Kazakh people traditionally lived as nomads. Even before the 1917 revolution
and during the collectivisation in the 1930s the pressure of agricultural intensification lead to reduced mobility and a strong decrease of the number of domestic
animals.
During the 1940s a limited form of nomadism was allowed, and nomadism in the
context of the Soviet system of collectivisation continued until the early 1990s
(Robinson et al. 2000).
During the 1950s vast areas (up to 40%) of summer pastures were converted to
arable land accompanied with the construction of irrigation systems, and the nomadism was largely replaced by collective farms. However, in many regions the cultivation of crops on ploughed ground failed, and naturally dry conditions in
combination with high wind speed and a declining groundwater level damaged the
crop cultivation. As a result deserted and weed-rich fallow lands followed.
In the 1960s, whole Kazakhstan was partitioned and the use was defined and
controlled by the authorities of the country and the management of the collective
farms (Robinson et al. 2000).
Since the Soviet period many pastoralists lived in houses during winter times and
in yurts during the summer. In the end of the Soviet period in 1987 the process of
de-collectivisation started and the transformation of state farms to private farms was
finished in 1993. However, also in the end of the millenium most farms had a kind of
collective structure. An important result for the landscapes was a strong decline of
the number of sheep by c. 70% with the result that most summer pastures and winter
pastures far away from villages were empty (Robinson et al. 2000).
Today transhumance and nomadic activities are extremely reduced. Modern
systems of livestock farming often leads to overgrazing around settlements and
watering points, and undergrazing in other areas.
The composition of wild ungulates and other vertebrates is highly impacted by
the composition and fragmentation of landscape elements, crop production, pastoralism and hunting. The last tiger in Kazakhstan was recorded in the year 1948
(Heptner and Sludskij 1992).
The Saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) at the end of the Peistocene lived in many
regions of the Eurasia, including W Europe, and even on Great Britain. Because of
fragmentation of the steppe, hunting and using horns for medicine in China, and
because of mass mortalities the whole population declined from several million
animals to several ten thousands, with the majority today living in Kazakhstan. In
2003 only 23,000 animals survived in Eurasia. In 2018 the population of Kazakhstan
(94% of all Saiga antelopes) was estimated as 154,600. However, severe winter or
drought, poaching for horns and a disease outbreak can reduce the population again
very fast (iucnredlist.org; assessed 24/5/2019).
Development and Future of Grassland Ecosystems: Do We Need a Paradigm Shift?
345
high mountain regions only during summer. In autumn and winter they migrated to
winter pastures with low snow cover in the semi-desert and dry steppe zones of the S
and in the lowlands.
In general, Russians and Europeans in Kazakhstan promoted crop cultivation
while Kazakh people traditionally lived as nomads. Even before the 1917 revolution
and during the collectivisation in the 1930s the pressure of agricultural intensification lead to reduced mobility and a strong decrease of the number of domestic
animals.
During the 1940s a limited form of nomadism was allowed, and nomadism in the
context of the Soviet system of collectivisation continued until the early 1990s
(Robinson et al. 2000).
During the 1950s vast areas (up to 40%) of summer pastures were converted to
arable land accompanied with the construction of irrigation systems, and the nomadism was largely replaced by collective farms. However, in many regions the cultivation of crops on ploughed ground failed, and naturally dry conditions in
combination with high wind speed and a declining groundwater level damaged the
crop cultivation. As a result deserted and weed-rich fallow lands followed.
In the 1960s, whole Kazakhstan was partitioned and the use was defined and
controlled by the authorities of the country and the management of the collective
farms (Robinson et al. 2000).
Since the Soviet period many pastoralists lived in houses during winter times and
in yurts during the summer. In the end of the Soviet period in 1987 the process of
de-collectivisation started and the transformation of state farms to private farms was
finished in 1993. However, also in the end of the millenium most farms had a kind of
collective structure. An important result for the landscapes was a strong decline of
the number of sheep by c. 70% with the result that most summer pastures and winter
pastures far away from villages were empty (Robinson et al. 2000).
Today transhumance and nomadic activities are extremely reduced. Modern
systems of livestock farming often leads to overgrazing around settlements and
watering points, and undergrazing in other areas.
The composition of wild ungulates and other vertebrates is highly impacted by
the composition and fragmentation of landscape elements, crop production, pastoralism and hunting. The last tiger in Kazakhstan was recorded in the year 1948
(Heptner and Sludskij 1992).
The Saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) at the end of the Peistocene lived in many
regions of the Eurasia, including W Europe, and even on Great Britain. Because of
fragmentation of the steppe, hunting and using horns for medicine in China, and
because of mass mortalities the whole population declined from several million
animals to several ten thousands, with the majority today living in Kazakhstan. In
2003 only 23,000 animals survived in Eurasia. In 2018 the population of Kazakhstan
(94% of all Saiga antelopes) was estimated as 154,600. However, severe winter or
drought, poaching for horns and a disease outbreak can reduce the population again
very fast (iucnredlist.org; assessed 24/5/2019).
Development and Future of Grassland Ecosystems: Do We Need a Paradigm Shift?
345