natural hard substrate in these systems are mussel or oyster beds, which give shelter
to many other species.
Apart from algae, often attached to hard substrate such as mussel, or oyster banks,
sea grasses (Zosteraceae, Posidoniaceae and Cymodoceaceae) can grow on mud
flats of shallow subtidal and intertidal substrates. In well-functioning sea grass beds,
the vegetation forms a semi-open self-organized vegetation, caused by nutrients and
sediment availability, much alike mussel banks. Here eel grass species (Zostera)
form a symbiosis with other biota in the soil (Van der Heide et al. 2012).
3.3 Mangroves
Mangroves are woody habitats of saline and brackish lagoons, shorelines and
estuaries between latitudes 25
N and 25
S (e.g. Fig. 1). Substrates are often
muddy or sandy, less often stony or rocky, and normally located at the transition
between low and high tide. The habitat is often characterized by deposition of fine
sediments with high proportion of organic material (Bowen et al. 2001; Jin-Eong
2004; Spalding et al. 2010).
In general, the composition of vascular plants is rather species-poor whereas the
water fauna can be classified as relatively species-rich (Goetting et al. 1988; Hogarth
1999).
Mangroves of the Indic Ocean and western coasts of Pacific Ocean harbour more
tree and shrub species than mangroves of the Atlantic Ocean and eastern coasts of
the Pacific Ocean. This anomaly in mangrove vegetation has been explained by
Fig. 1 Mangroves at Bonaire are presently dying off at a large scale, because of the inflow of
Sargassum algae that decomposes in the salinas (photographed by Joop Schaminée)
286
C. Hobohm et al.
to many other species.
Apart from algae, often attached to hard substrate such as mussel, or oyster banks,
sea grasses (Zosteraceae, Posidoniaceae and Cymodoceaceae) can grow on mud
flats of shallow subtidal and intertidal substrates. In well-functioning sea grass beds,
the vegetation forms a semi-open self-organized vegetation, caused by nutrients and
sediment availability, much alike mussel banks. Here eel grass species (Zostera)
form a symbiosis with other biota in the soil (Van der Heide et al. 2012).
3.3 Mangroves
Mangroves are woody habitats of saline and brackish lagoons, shorelines and
estuaries between latitudes 25
N and 25
S (e.g. Fig. 1). Substrates are often
muddy or sandy, less often stony or rocky, and normally located at the transition
between low and high tide. The habitat is often characterized by deposition of fine
sediments with high proportion of organic material (Bowen et al. 2001; Jin-Eong
2004; Spalding et al. 2010).
In general, the composition of vascular plants is rather species-poor whereas the
water fauna can be classified as relatively species-rich (Goetting et al. 1988; Hogarth
1999).
Mangroves of the Indic Ocean and western coasts of Pacific Ocean harbour more
tree and shrub species than mangroves of the Atlantic Ocean and eastern coasts of
the Pacific Ocean. This anomaly in mangrove vegetation has been explained by
Fig. 1 Mangroves at Bonaire are presently dying off at a large scale, because of the inflow of
Sargassum algae that decomposes in the salinas (photographed by Joop Schaminée)
286
C. Hobohm et al.