1 Introduction
Krefeld is a small city in Germany. A rather small society of amateurs interested in
insects is working there (Krefeld Entomological Association). Members of this
association trapped insects in 63 nature reserves annually since 1989. The catches
of the first 26 years were analysed by Hallmann et al. (2017) who found a 76%
decline of the mass of insects over this period of time. The media worldwide have
reported about this alarming trend which might be representative for all of Europe
and also other countries on Earth.
The result was rather spectacular as the insects were collected in nature conservation areas outside urban regions but partially surrounded by industrial agriculture.
What is the reason for this dramatic insect decline? Has it to do with the use of
chemical components that are dispersed by agriculture, wind and water? According
to speculation, industrial agriculture and the use of pesticides close to the traps have
caused this effect. On the other hand, lobbyists of the agricultural economy have
clearly denied this interpretation.
However, diverse natural and artificial substances can be identified that dwell for
a short time or—hundreds and even thousands of years—in the atmosphere and
waters. Chemical components in the atmosphere have diverse effects on climate,
ecosystem function, biota and health. Anthropogenic emissions comprise highly
effective trace gases, and pollutants such as pesticides, acids, nutrients, greenhouse
gases and aerosols (Fowler et al. 2009; Monks et al. 2009).
Microbiomes are very small sized compositions of bacteria, fungi, viruses and
other small organisms. The understanding of microbiomes inside humans, animals,
plants, and soils, and in standing, running and ground waters are of rising interest.
However, very little is known about the influence of tropospheric components on
microbial communities e.g., in soils and waters, and even less is known about their
meaning for ecosystem functioning. Less again is known about the meaning of
microbiomes to entire ecosystems and their ecology (Fierer 2017; Serna-Chavez
et al. 2013; Fierer et al. 2009; Torsvik and Ovreas 2002).
Species compositions depend on environmental heterogeneity in space (e.g.,
Dufour et al. 2006; Yang et al. 2015). However, species compositions also reflect
their evolutionary and ecological history. Changing conditions may result in adaptation, succession, migration, evolution and extinction. Genetic memory or capacity
for learning is essential in vertebrates but also in plants (Gagliano et al. 2014).
Distribution patterns at macro-ecological scales may be used both as a memory
tool reflecting the evolutionary history through past climatic change, and for predictability of changing distribution patterns under future climate change scenarios
(Tang et al. 2018).
However, a general tool for calculating the effects of changing conditions through
time on species compositions, at landscape to regional scales, has not been
developed yet.
182
C. Hobohm and S. E. Vanderplank
Krefeld is a small city in Germany. A rather small society of amateurs interested in
insects is working there (Krefeld Entomological Association). Members of this
association trapped insects in 63 nature reserves annually since 1989. The catches
of the first 26 years were analysed by Hallmann et al. (2017) who found a 76%
decline of the mass of insects over this period of time. The media worldwide have
reported about this alarming trend which might be representative for all of Europe
and also other countries on Earth.
The result was rather spectacular as the insects were collected in nature conservation areas outside urban regions but partially surrounded by industrial agriculture.
What is the reason for this dramatic insect decline? Has it to do with the use of
chemical components that are dispersed by agriculture, wind and water? According
to speculation, industrial agriculture and the use of pesticides close to the traps have
caused this effect. On the other hand, lobbyists of the agricultural economy have
clearly denied this interpretation.
However, diverse natural and artificial substances can be identified that dwell for
a short time or—hundreds and even thousands of years—in the atmosphere and
waters. Chemical components in the atmosphere have diverse effects on climate,
ecosystem function, biota and health. Anthropogenic emissions comprise highly
effective trace gases, and pollutants such as pesticides, acids, nutrients, greenhouse
gases and aerosols (Fowler et al. 2009; Monks et al. 2009).
Microbiomes are very small sized compositions of bacteria, fungi, viruses and
other small organisms. The understanding of microbiomes inside humans, animals,
plants, and soils, and in standing, running and ground waters are of rising interest.
However, very little is known about the influence of tropospheric components on
microbial communities e.g., in soils and waters, and even less is known about their
meaning for ecosystem functioning. Less again is known about the meaning of
microbiomes to entire ecosystems and their ecology (Fierer 2017; Serna-Chavez
et al. 2013; Fierer et al. 2009; Torsvik and Ovreas 2002).
Species compositions depend on environmental heterogeneity in space (e.g.,
Dufour et al. 2006; Yang et al. 2015). However, species compositions also reflect
their evolutionary and ecological history. Changing conditions may result in adaptation, succession, migration, evolution and extinction. Genetic memory or capacity
for learning is essential in vertebrates but also in plants (Gagliano et al. 2014).
Distribution patterns at macro-ecological scales may be used both as a memory
tool reflecting the evolutionary history through past climatic change, and for predictability of changing distribution patterns under future climate change scenarios
(Tang et al. 2018).
However, a general tool for calculating the effects of changing conditions through
time on species compositions, at landscape to regional scales, has not been
developed yet.
182
C. Hobohm and S. E. Vanderplank