5.2 Eudemonic Values
There is now widespread consensus that the distinction between instrumental and
inherent value is not a dichotomy if instrumental values are embedded in a certain
understanding of a mean-end-relation. Eudemonic values can be seen as another
category of values that includes aesthetic, locational, restful, transformative, and
spiritual encounters with nature. As Ott argued in many articles (e.g. Ott 2016b),
reconciliation between man and nature within the paradigm of instrumental rationality will not succeed. Clever animals have only instrumental and at best prudential
reasons to protect natural resources. Environmental ethics emphasizes the many
ways in which humans are bestowed by nature with types of pleasure, joy, wonder,
connectedness, and even bliss and reverence. Eudemonic values give a new perspective on how different people might, could and should shape their lives with and
in nature. They refer to outdoor activities that people perform for their own sake,
such as hiking, sailing, diving, climbing and even hunting. If you go on a hiking trail
for the sake of hiking, you give this activity eudemonic value. Other examples of
so-called “eudemonic” values include the beauty of nature, a (deeper) sense of home
(“Heimat”), relaxation, joyful physical exercises, biophilic sensations and spiritual
encounters with nature. Here nature reveals itself as an essential dimension of a
good, flourishing and meaningful human life. Eugene Hargrove (1992), Allen
Holland (2002), Angelika Krebs (1999), and Roger Scruton (2012) have also argued
along these lines.
The area of eudemonic values resembles the category of cultural services within
ESS and it includes the existential value of TEV. It should become clear that some
eudemonic values (aesthetic, spiritual, symbolic) would not be sufficiently taken into
account by existence values or cultural services. In any case, it is unclear how a
spiritual understanding of nature as being “sacred” can be captured by the usual
definition of existence value (“value to the mere existence of a natural being N
without any further interest to utilize N”). This is also true for biophilic attitudes.
With some likeliness, hegemonic concepts of modernity have oppressed biophilic
dispositions, while an ecological civilization will liberate them anew. Eudemonic
values make also clear that one could and should restore nature as a joyful focal
practice (Borgmann 1984).
5.3 Future Ethics
In connection with questions of distributive justice and the necessary conditions for a
good life, responsibility towards future generations with regard to metabolic and
eudemonic values is important. Future ethics is about fair legacies at different levels.
Most approaches are critical to the promise of a growth-oriented economy that future
generations will be far better off than previous generations, as scarcity of commodities is reduced by GDP growth and technological innovation. Overabundance of
Environmental Evaluation between Economics and Ethics: An Argument for. . .
145
There is now widespread consensus that the distinction between instrumental and
inherent value is not a dichotomy if instrumental values are embedded in a certain
understanding of a mean-end-relation. Eudemonic values can be seen as another
category of values that includes aesthetic, locational, restful, transformative, and
spiritual encounters with nature. As Ott argued in many articles (e.g. Ott 2016b),
reconciliation between man and nature within the paradigm of instrumental rationality will not succeed. Clever animals have only instrumental and at best prudential
reasons to protect natural resources. Environmental ethics emphasizes the many
ways in which humans are bestowed by nature with types of pleasure, joy, wonder,
connectedness, and even bliss and reverence. Eudemonic values give a new perspective on how different people might, could and should shape their lives with and
in nature. They refer to outdoor activities that people perform for their own sake,
such as hiking, sailing, diving, climbing and even hunting. If you go on a hiking trail
for the sake of hiking, you give this activity eudemonic value. Other examples of
so-called “eudemonic” values include the beauty of nature, a (deeper) sense of home
(“Heimat”), relaxation, joyful physical exercises, biophilic sensations and spiritual
encounters with nature. Here nature reveals itself as an essential dimension of a
good, flourishing and meaningful human life. Eugene Hargrove (1992), Allen
Holland (2002), Angelika Krebs (1999), and Roger Scruton (2012) have also argued
along these lines.
The area of eudemonic values resembles the category of cultural services within
ESS and it includes the existential value of TEV. It should become clear that some
eudemonic values (aesthetic, spiritual, symbolic) would not be sufficiently taken into
account by existence values or cultural services. In any case, it is unclear how a
spiritual understanding of nature as being “sacred” can be captured by the usual
definition of existence value (“value to the mere existence of a natural being N
without any further interest to utilize N”). This is also true for biophilic attitudes.
With some likeliness, hegemonic concepts of modernity have oppressed biophilic
dispositions, while an ecological civilization will liberate them anew. Eudemonic
values make also clear that one could and should restore nature as a joyful focal
practice (Borgmann 1984).
5.3 Future Ethics
In connection with questions of distributive justice and the necessary conditions for a
good life, responsibility towards future generations with regard to metabolic and
eudemonic values is important. Future ethics is about fair legacies at different levels.
Most approaches are critical to the promise of a growth-oriented economy that future
generations will be far better off than previous generations, as scarcity of commodities is reduced by GDP growth and technological innovation. Overabundance of
Environmental Evaluation between Economics and Ethics: An Argument for. . .
145