headspace extraction. The first two approaches assume that the analyte is highly
soluble in water and that water is a suitable solvent to liberate the analyte from the
matrix. The latter scenario assumes that the analytes of interest are volatile or semivolatile so that they are available in the headspace above the sample (Dean 2000).
In 2015, Ghiasvand and Pirdadeh-Beiranvand introduced an effective and inexpensive device for cooling/heating assisted solid-phase microextraction
(CHA-SPME) for an analysis of volatile and semi-volatile species in complex
solid samples, with no need of sample pretreatment and with minimal manipulation
compared to conventional SPME. The proposed device coupled to GC-FID was
successfully used for the extraction and determination of PAHs in contaminated
soils. Besides SPME, it can be utilized for simultaneous cooling of the extraction
phase and heating of the sample matrix in LPME, NTD (needle trap devices) and
INCAT (inside needle capillary adsorption trap) methods, all used for environmental
sample preparation.
Another promising trend in the search for faster, simpler, cheaper and more
environmentally friendly sample preparation and separation techniques has been
the utilization of electrical driving force. In recent years, a noticeable progress has
been made in this field and some new electrically assisted microextraction
techniques have been introduced, such as electrically assisted SPME coupled to
liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry that was applied for determination of
trace levels of organophosphate insecticide in water (Yang and Lee 2010) or
electrically assisted LPME used for determination of β2-receptor agonist drugs in
wastewater (Rezazadeh et al. 2012). One of the very attractive areas of use, rarely
pointed out in literature, is synthesizing and preparing the membranes and solidphase sorbents for SPE or SPME (Yamini et al. 2014). Membrane-protected SPME
can be used for the analysis of a wide range of environmental materials, including
air, water, sediment and soil.
Stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE) operates on a similar principle as SPME
which involves partitioning of the target analyte between (usually an aqueousbased liquid) sample and a stationary phase-coated stir bar (Chirila and Drăghici
2013). In SBSE, stir bars are coated with polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). When
compared to SPME, it is characterized by a higher sorption capacity due to the
presence of large volumes of coating material (Nießner and Schäffer 2017). SBSE is
rapid and simple, which makes it ideal for automation and in situ measurements
(Nilsson 2000) and it can be effectively applied to different kinds of environmental
matrices, such as water, wastewater, soils, biological fluids and gases (Saha et al.
2017).
5.4
Surfactants of Biological Origin as Eco-friendly Extractants
for Environmental Pollutants Removal
The extraction using surfactants is one of the several applicable methods for the
remediation of petroleum hydrocarbons (Goswami et al. 2018) and heavy metals in
soils. After their utilization, water-soluble surfactants are very difficult to recover or
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L. Nemček and I. Hagarová
soluble in water and that water is a suitable solvent to liberate the analyte from the
matrix. The latter scenario assumes that the analytes of interest are volatile or semivolatile so that they are available in the headspace above the sample (Dean 2000).
In 2015, Ghiasvand and Pirdadeh-Beiranvand introduced an effective and inexpensive device for cooling/heating assisted solid-phase microextraction
(CHA-SPME) for an analysis of volatile and semi-volatile species in complex
solid samples, with no need of sample pretreatment and with minimal manipulation
compared to conventional SPME. The proposed device coupled to GC-FID was
successfully used for the extraction and determination of PAHs in contaminated
soils. Besides SPME, it can be utilized for simultaneous cooling of the extraction
phase and heating of the sample matrix in LPME, NTD (needle trap devices) and
INCAT (inside needle capillary adsorption trap) methods, all used for environmental
sample preparation.
Another promising trend in the search for faster, simpler, cheaper and more
environmentally friendly sample preparation and separation techniques has been
the utilization of electrical driving force. In recent years, a noticeable progress has
been made in this field and some new electrically assisted microextraction
techniques have been introduced, such as electrically assisted SPME coupled to
liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry that was applied for determination of
trace levels of organophosphate insecticide in water (Yang and Lee 2010) or
electrically assisted LPME used for determination of β2-receptor agonist drugs in
wastewater (Rezazadeh et al. 2012). One of the very attractive areas of use, rarely
pointed out in literature, is synthesizing and preparing the membranes and solidphase sorbents for SPE or SPME (Yamini et al. 2014). Membrane-protected SPME
can be used for the analysis of a wide range of environmental materials, including
air, water, sediment and soil.
Stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE) operates on a similar principle as SPME
which involves partitioning of the target analyte between (usually an aqueousbased liquid) sample and a stationary phase-coated stir bar (Chirila and Drăghici
2013). In SBSE, stir bars are coated with polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). When
compared to SPME, it is characterized by a higher sorption capacity due to the
presence of large volumes of coating material (Nießner and Schäffer 2017). SBSE is
rapid and simple, which makes it ideal for automation and in situ measurements
(Nilsson 2000) and it can be effectively applied to different kinds of environmental
matrices, such as water, wastewater, soils, biological fluids and gases (Saha et al.
2017).
5.4
Surfactants of Biological Origin as Eco-friendly Extractants
for Environmental Pollutants Removal
The extraction using surfactants is one of the several applicable methods for the
remediation of petroleum hydrocarbons (Goswami et al. 2018) and heavy metals in
soils. After their utilization, water-soluble surfactants are very difficult to recover or
148
L. Nemček and I. Hagarová