first by dechlorination, forming chlorocarbazole acetic acid. After this, the combination of hydroxylation and decarboxylation reactions is observed in the diclofenac
structure (Fig. 10.9) (Lekkerkerker-Teunissen et al. 2012). Carbamazepine degradation via ultraviolet/hydrogen peroxide was poor, and the appearance of carbamazepine transformation products mainly 10,11-epoxycarbamazepine was influenced by
the ultraviolet treatment rather than hydrogen peroxide dose (LekkerkerkerTeunissen et al. 2012).
Low-pressure lamps have ultraviolet emission at 254 nm, whereas mediumpressure lamps have a spectrum 200–800 nm of irradiation with excellent potential
to directly photodegrade pharmaceuticals and personal care products. Justo et al.
(2013) used low-pressure lamps mercury vapor lamps to mitigate reverse osmosis
concentrates (i.e., 11 pharmaceutical compounds) by ultraviolet/hydrogen peroxide
and ozonation. On the other hand, Shu et al. (2013) applied medium-pressure lamps
to photodegrade emerging pharmaceuticals and personal care products using ultraviolet/hydrogen peroxide. Moreover, both types of lamps were employed by Wols
et al. (2013) to degrade 40 selected pharmaceuticals spiked in three different water
matrices using ultraviolet/hydrogen peroxide. A polychromatic medium-pressure
lamps showed better degradation performance than a low-pressure lamps, due to a
wider range of wavelengths, increasing the probability of reactions between photons
and the pollutants. Hydrogen peroxide/ultraviolet degradation using surface waters
led to a 75% reduction of most pharmaceuticals compounds at ultraviolet doses of
500 and 1000 mJ/cm
2 for medium-pressure and low-pressure lamps, respectively
(Wols et al. 2013).
Currently, several chemical oxidation processes are now being applied to water
treatments to improve the sanitation technologies municipal wastewater treatment
plant to protect the aquatic environment from pharmaceuticals and personal care
products. In this context, Lee and von Gunten (2010) compared selective oxidants,
such as ClO 2 , FeO 4
À2 (ferrate (VI)), chlorine, and ozone, to ultraviolet/hydrogen
peroxide as non-selective oxidants for the degradation of pharmaceutical compounds, endocrine-disrupting compounds, antibiotic, and anti-hypertensive
micropollutants. The authors observed that the specific oxidants reacted with certain
electron-rich organic groups such as anilines, phenols, and amines and that the
effluent organic matter is main wastewater component that contains electron-rich
organic moieties which may consume the oxidants.
The most important source of pharmaceuticals and personal care products into the
environment is municipal wastewater treatment plants, where conventional treatment plants are still majorly inefficient in removing pharmaceuticals and personal
care products (Michael et al. 2013). Among the advanced oxidation processes
technologies able to reduce emergent contaminants in water, the Photo-Fenton
processes is particularly attractive, due to its efficient use of sunlight with wavelengths below 580 nm (Malato et al. 2009). Li et al. (2012) examined the Fenton
oxidation process regarding pharmaceutical compounds present in wastewater. The
transformation of effluent organic matter was used to quantify the Fenton oxidation
reaction. Ibuprofen, carbamazepine, and diclofenac were fully removed by this
process using a 2.5 hydrogen peroxide/Fe (II) molar ratio. However, the major
10 Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products in the Aquatic Environment and. . .
337
structure (Fig. 10.9) (Lekkerkerker-Teunissen et al. 2012). Carbamazepine degradation via ultraviolet/hydrogen peroxide was poor, and the appearance of carbamazepine transformation products mainly 10,11-epoxycarbamazepine was influenced by
the ultraviolet treatment rather than hydrogen peroxide dose (LekkerkerkerTeunissen et al. 2012).
Low-pressure lamps have ultraviolet emission at 254 nm, whereas mediumpressure lamps have a spectrum 200–800 nm of irradiation with excellent potential
to directly photodegrade pharmaceuticals and personal care products. Justo et al.
(2013) used low-pressure lamps mercury vapor lamps to mitigate reverse osmosis
concentrates (i.e., 11 pharmaceutical compounds) by ultraviolet/hydrogen peroxide
and ozonation. On the other hand, Shu et al. (2013) applied medium-pressure lamps
to photodegrade emerging pharmaceuticals and personal care products using ultraviolet/hydrogen peroxide. Moreover, both types of lamps were employed by Wols
et al. (2013) to degrade 40 selected pharmaceuticals spiked in three different water
matrices using ultraviolet/hydrogen peroxide. A polychromatic medium-pressure
lamps showed better degradation performance than a low-pressure lamps, due to a
wider range of wavelengths, increasing the probability of reactions between photons
and the pollutants. Hydrogen peroxide/ultraviolet degradation using surface waters
led to a 75% reduction of most pharmaceuticals compounds at ultraviolet doses of
500 and 1000 mJ/cm
2 for medium-pressure and low-pressure lamps, respectively
(Wols et al. 2013).
Currently, several chemical oxidation processes are now being applied to water
treatments to improve the sanitation technologies municipal wastewater treatment
plant to protect the aquatic environment from pharmaceuticals and personal care
products. In this context, Lee and von Gunten (2010) compared selective oxidants,
such as ClO 2 , FeO 4
À2 (ferrate (VI)), chlorine, and ozone, to ultraviolet/hydrogen
peroxide as non-selective oxidants for the degradation of pharmaceutical compounds, endocrine-disrupting compounds, antibiotic, and anti-hypertensive
micropollutants. The authors observed that the specific oxidants reacted with certain
electron-rich organic groups such as anilines, phenols, and amines and that the
effluent organic matter is main wastewater component that contains electron-rich
organic moieties which may consume the oxidants.
The most important source of pharmaceuticals and personal care products into the
environment is municipal wastewater treatment plants, where conventional treatment plants are still majorly inefficient in removing pharmaceuticals and personal
care products (Michael et al. 2013). Among the advanced oxidation processes
technologies able to reduce emergent contaminants in water, the Photo-Fenton
processes is particularly attractive, due to its efficient use of sunlight with wavelengths below 580 nm (Malato et al. 2009). Li et al. (2012) examined the Fenton
oxidation process regarding pharmaceutical compounds present in wastewater. The
transformation of effluent organic matter was used to quantify the Fenton oxidation
reaction. Ibuprofen, carbamazepine, and diclofenac were fully removed by this
process using a 2.5 hydrogen peroxide/Fe (II) molar ratio. However, the major
10 Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products in the Aquatic Environment and. . .
337