were evaluated, respectively. The chemical mixture at 400
C exhibited the best
performance both in the absorption step and in photodegradation phase. Carbajo
et al. (2016) synthesized a TiO 2 catalyst by the hydrolysis of titanium
(IV) isopropoxide in ethanol and evaluated its performance on the ibuprofen and
carbamazepine photodegradation in natural waters using a solar compound parabolic
collector pilot plant. The constant rate kinetics were 0.089, 0.043 min
À1 and 0.081,
0.040 min
À1 for carbamazepine and ibuprofen at P25 and synthesized TiO 2 ,
respectively.
Homogeneous Oxidation Processes
Ozonation has been one of the most broadly investigated advanced oxidation
processes methodology for pharmaceutical degradation. This technique is applied
in several polluted matrices, as a clarifying and disinfecting agent. Ozonation is
appropriate for the treatment of different kinds of wastewater matrices containing
low concentrations of recalcitrant and toxic contaminants. Heberer (2007) studied
the effectiveness of different treatment steps to remove diclofenac, carbamazepine,
and lipid regulators in waterworks. The authors observed that using at low ozone
dose (0.5 mg L
À1 ) removed 97% of diclofenac and carbamazepine. According to
Gagnon et al. (2008), the irradiation used for wastewater disinfection does not
necessarily promote the cleavage of the molecules (photolysis) of pharmaceuticals
compounds presents in wastewater. Thus, they studied the capacity of each disinfection mode in the degradation of selected pharmaceuticals residues. Most of the
pharmaceutical compounds were eliminated below 10% under ultraviolet photolysis,
while high rate percentage removal (> 50%) was achieved at ozone dose of
10 mg L
À1 . Applying the same approach, Coelho et al. (2010) evaluated the
biodegradability and toxicity of ibuprofen and diclofenac by ozonation. They
found a low optimal ozone dose (0.20 g L
À1
) for total diclofenac removal, while
the toxicity did not change in the ozonation treatment. On the other hand, ibuprofen
required a more ozonation dose (2.3 g L
À1 ) than diclofenac to reach satisfactory
mineralization and toxicity, determined by the Vibrio fischeri test, decreased with
increasing ozone doses. Zimmermann et al. (2011) studied the degradation of
22 pharmaceuticals and personal care products at seven ozone doses (0.21 to
1.24 g Ozone g
À1 ), including carbamazepine, ibuprofen, and diclofenac. Oxidation
transformation products formation, assimilable organic carbon, and disinfection by
Escherichia coli were also evaluated. Rodríguez et al. (2012) used a continuous flow
ozonation reactor equipped with a bubble column to find the optimal operational
conditions wastewater treatment plant effluents spiked with 12 pharmaceuticals and
personal care products, including ibuprofen, carbamazepine, and diclofenac. They
found that energy for satisfactory ozonation was in the 0.03–0.26 kWh/m
3 range,
with ozone efficiencies ranging from 90 to 100% and pollutant removal around
67–98%. The ozonation process presented high rate of constants reactivity
(k Ozone > 10
5 M
À1 s
À1 ) for diclofenac and carbamazepine. Both compounds have
nonaromatic double bonds and deprotonated secondary aromatic amines,
10 Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products in the Aquatic Environment and. . .
335
C exhibited the best
performance both in the absorption step and in photodegradation phase. Carbajo
et al. (2016) synthesized a TiO 2 catalyst by the hydrolysis of titanium
(IV) isopropoxide in ethanol and evaluated its performance on the ibuprofen and
carbamazepine photodegradation in natural waters using a solar compound parabolic
collector pilot plant. The constant rate kinetics were 0.089, 0.043 min
À1 and 0.081,
0.040 min
À1 for carbamazepine and ibuprofen at P25 and synthesized TiO 2 ,
respectively.
Homogeneous Oxidation Processes
Ozonation has been one of the most broadly investigated advanced oxidation
processes methodology for pharmaceutical degradation. This technique is applied
in several polluted matrices, as a clarifying and disinfecting agent. Ozonation is
appropriate for the treatment of different kinds of wastewater matrices containing
low concentrations of recalcitrant and toxic contaminants. Heberer (2007) studied
the effectiveness of different treatment steps to remove diclofenac, carbamazepine,
and lipid regulators in waterworks. The authors observed that using at low ozone
dose (0.5 mg L
À1 ) removed 97% of diclofenac and carbamazepine. According to
Gagnon et al. (2008), the irradiation used for wastewater disinfection does not
necessarily promote the cleavage of the molecules (photolysis) of pharmaceuticals
compounds presents in wastewater. Thus, they studied the capacity of each disinfection mode in the degradation of selected pharmaceuticals residues. Most of the
pharmaceutical compounds were eliminated below 10% under ultraviolet photolysis,
while high rate percentage removal (> 50%) was achieved at ozone dose of
10 mg L
À1 . Applying the same approach, Coelho et al. (2010) evaluated the
biodegradability and toxicity of ibuprofen and diclofenac by ozonation. They
found a low optimal ozone dose (0.20 g L
À1
) for total diclofenac removal, while
the toxicity did not change in the ozonation treatment. On the other hand, ibuprofen
required a more ozonation dose (2.3 g L
À1 ) than diclofenac to reach satisfactory
mineralization and toxicity, determined by the Vibrio fischeri test, decreased with
increasing ozone doses. Zimmermann et al. (2011) studied the degradation of
22 pharmaceuticals and personal care products at seven ozone doses (0.21 to
1.24 g Ozone g
À1 ), including carbamazepine, ibuprofen, and diclofenac. Oxidation
transformation products formation, assimilable organic carbon, and disinfection by
Escherichia coli were also evaluated. Rodríguez et al. (2012) used a continuous flow
ozonation reactor equipped with a bubble column to find the optimal operational
conditions wastewater treatment plant effluents spiked with 12 pharmaceuticals and
personal care products, including ibuprofen, carbamazepine, and diclofenac. They
found that energy for satisfactory ozonation was in the 0.03–0.26 kWh/m
3 range,
with ozone efficiencies ranging from 90 to 100% and pollutant removal around
67–98%. The ozonation process presented high rate of constants reactivity
(k Ozone > 10
5 M
À1 s
À1 ) for diclofenac and carbamazepine. Both compounds have
nonaromatic double bonds and deprotonated secondary aromatic amines,
10 Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products in the Aquatic Environment and. . .
335