Regardless, the nefarious activities of the consumers are on the increase, and the
hidden natures of the business have helped its purported widespread and escalating
consumption.
Until the idea of Daughton and Ternes (1999) and Daughton (2004), using
intrusive approach to provide information on the community consumption of illicit
drugs of whose idea was later demonstrated by Zuccato et al. (2005), nearly nothing
was in the public domain about the estimation and levels of abused drugs in the
environment. Today, the abused drugs are similarly surviving like other pharmaceuticals and medicinal drugs as reported by several studies, but the extent and spread
differ from one location to another. The levels of abused drugs and abused pharmaceuticals in the effluents to receiving waters can generate exposure data to indicate
potential threats; it constitutes to the environment as well to the appropriate authorities involved in fighting and controlling drug menace.
Therefore, we must provide updates on the fate and removal of these pharmacologically active contaminants from effluents to safeguard aquatic and human environment. The highlight of pharmaceutical occurrence, metabolism, transport routes,
stability, analysis and current development in monitoring their fate is of great interest
to humans and the environment.
9.2 Pharmaceutical Occurrence in Aqueous Environment
Pharmaceutical products produce active ingredients from parent drugs after metabolism; the biotransformation of these drugs generates associated metabolites that are
excreted after intended use by dose users and pass on to the sewage system. In the
sewage system, there exist increased possibilities of risks of environmental effects as
more polar degradation products are produced in complex biochemical pathways that
are very complicated to follow. The concerns for environmental sustainability and
safety have led increasing attention to the large production of pharmaceuticals and their
corresponding metabolites including those that are normally procured illegally (without approval/prescription) for illicit purposes. Yet, new pharmaceuticaldrugs of varying chemical classes enter the aquatic environment through sewage system and run-off.
The drug residue (unmetabolized) from excreta and urine and associated active
metabolites are flushed in the toilets, and unwanted drugs are directly dumped to the
surface river or disposed via drains; this constitutes a major source of pollution. The
distributions of therapeutic classes of drugs in the environment are antibiotics, antiinflammatory, anti-epileptics, antineoplastics, antidepressants, beta-blockers, β 2 -
sympathomimetics, contraceptives, diagnostic contrast media, lipid regulators, preservatives, sunscreen agents and tranquilizers (Hedgespeth et al. 2012). Selected
different classes of pharmaceuticals are in Tables 9.2, 9.3 and 9.4.
Detectable levels of different classes of pharmaceuticals ranging from ng L
À1 to
μg L
À1 were found in rivers, seas, lakes and surface and underground waters due to
incomplete removal from the sewage system.
9 Fate of Pharmaceutical Drugs and Metabolites in the Environment
281
hidden natures of the business have helped its purported widespread and escalating
consumption.
Until the idea of Daughton and Ternes (1999) and Daughton (2004), using
intrusive approach to provide information on the community consumption of illicit
drugs of whose idea was later demonstrated by Zuccato et al. (2005), nearly nothing
was in the public domain about the estimation and levels of abused drugs in the
environment. Today, the abused drugs are similarly surviving like other pharmaceuticals and medicinal drugs as reported by several studies, but the extent and spread
differ from one location to another. The levels of abused drugs and abused pharmaceuticals in the effluents to receiving waters can generate exposure data to indicate
potential threats; it constitutes to the environment as well to the appropriate authorities involved in fighting and controlling drug menace.
Therefore, we must provide updates on the fate and removal of these pharmacologically active contaminants from effluents to safeguard aquatic and human environment. The highlight of pharmaceutical occurrence, metabolism, transport routes,
stability, analysis and current development in monitoring their fate is of great interest
to humans and the environment.
9.2 Pharmaceutical Occurrence in Aqueous Environment
Pharmaceutical products produce active ingredients from parent drugs after metabolism; the biotransformation of these drugs generates associated metabolites that are
excreted after intended use by dose users and pass on to the sewage system. In the
sewage system, there exist increased possibilities of risks of environmental effects as
more polar degradation products are produced in complex biochemical pathways that
are very complicated to follow. The concerns for environmental sustainability and
safety have led increasing attention to the large production of pharmaceuticals and their
corresponding metabolites including those that are normally procured illegally (without approval/prescription) for illicit purposes. Yet, new pharmaceuticaldrugs of varying chemical classes enter the aquatic environment through sewage system and run-off.
The drug residue (unmetabolized) from excreta and urine and associated active
metabolites are flushed in the toilets, and unwanted drugs are directly dumped to the
surface river or disposed via drains; this constitutes a major source of pollution. The
distributions of therapeutic classes of drugs in the environment are antibiotics, antiinflammatory, anti-epileptics, antineoplastics, antidepressants, beta-blockers, β 2 -
sympathomimetics, contraceptives, diagnostic contrast media, lipid regulators, preservatives, sunscreen agents and tranquilizers (Hedgespeth et al. 2012). Selected
different classes of pharmaceuticals are in Tables 9.2, 9.3 and 9.4.
Detectable levels of different classes of pharmaceuticals ranging from ng L
À1 to
μg L
À1 were found in rivers, seas, lakes and surface and underground waters due to
incomplete removal from the sewage system.
9 Fate of Pharmaceutical Drugs and Metabolites in the Environment
281