concerns and negative environmental impacts. However, in the present time these
treatment systems are not commonly accepted due to their drawbacks like requirement of large area, problems in field operation, high cost, and difficult to achieve the
higher hygiene standards (Tzanakakis et al. 2014).
6.2.1 International Scenario
Wastewater reuse for agricultural irrigation is more important in water-scarce countries. For irrigational purposes, quality and nature of wastewater reuse vary among
different countries. Antwi-Agyei et al. (2016) interviewed 490 respondents of Accra,
Ghana during two cropping seasons and found that awareness about the sources of
wastewater in consumers and street food vendors was low as compared to market
vendors. In terms of health risk awareness, it was generally low among the farmers
and high among consumers and salespersons. This study promoted the intervention
that directly benefits farmers, vendors, and consumers along with improvement in
the knowledge of food safety and hygiene. Thebo et al. (2017) reported that at global
level, approximately 11% of urban and peri-urban agriculture field area was irrigated
with untreated wastewater. They concluded that the consumers, who depend on
wastewater irrigated crops, must be assured for food safety by estimating the level of
contaminants.
Moussaoui et al. (2017) reported that urban untreated wastewater is reused in
agro-forestry sectors of Marrakesh city in a sustainable way. Local climatic condition of this city is an ultimate challenge for conserving the quality of wastewater
resources, due to the degradation of organic matter, i.e., foul smell and availability of
pathogenic microbes which had negative impact on soil quality in terms of fertility as
well as its productivity. To face this problem treated wastewater irrigation becomes
reliable and sustainable strategy, which enhanced soil fertility and combating water
scarcity. Rezapour et al. (2019) studied Cd accumulation in wheat grain cultivated in
the wastewater irrigated agriculture field of Western Azerbaijan Province, northwestern Iran. The accumulation of Cd and its translocation and carcinogenic health
risk were estimated through food chain contamination that ultimately affect the
human life. Cadmium (Cd) is non-biodegradable and highly persistent in nature.
Translocation factor for Cd through root to grain ranged from 0.18–0.24 and its
carcinogenic health risk was found to be low to moderate risk category (Rezapour
et al. 2019). Wastewater irrigation from outlet of electroplating factory threatened
the agriculture quality (Xiao et al. 2019). Soil pH as well as concentrations of total
and secondary phase fraction, i.e., bioavailable fraction (acid-soluble, reducible,
oxidizable, and residual fraction) of heavy metals lowered down as the distance
increased from electroplating factories. Redundancy analysis and stepwise regression analysis showed that soil pH, silt content, amorphous Fe oxides, and Mn oxides
affected the Secondary Phase Fraction. Concentration of heavy metal concentration
in soil and varied up to 68.8% and 43.5%, respectively.
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P. K. Singh and R. K. Sharma
treatment systems are not commonly accepted due to their drawbacks like requirement of large area, problems in field operation, high cost, and difficult to achieve the
higher hygiene standards (Tzanakakis et al. 2014).
6.2.1 International Scenario
Wastewater reuse for agricultural irrigation is more important in water-scarce countries. For irrigational purposes, quality and nature of wastewater reuse vary among
different countries. Antwi-Agyei et al. (2016) interviewed 490 respondents of Accra,
Ghana during two cropping seasons and found that awareness about the sources of
wastewater in consumers and street food vendors was low as compared to market
vendors. In terms of health risk awareness, it was generally low among the farmers
and high among consumers and salespersons. This study promoted the intervention
that directly benefits farmers, vendors, and consumers along with improvement in
the knowledge of food safety and hygiene. Thebo et al. (2017) reported that at global
level, approximately 11% of urban and peri-urban agriculture field area was irrigated
with untreated wastewater. They concluded that the consumers, who depend on
wastewater irrigated crops, must be assured for food safety by estimating the level of
contaminants.
Moussaoui et al. (2017) reported that urban untreated wastewater is reused in
agro-forestry sectors of Marrakesh city in a sustainable way. Local climatic condition of this city is an ultimate challenge for conserving the quality of wastewater
resources, due to the degradation of organic matter, i.e., foul smell and availability of
pathogenic microbes which had negative impact on soil quality in terms of fertility as
well as its productivity. To face this problem treated wastewater irrigation becomes
reliable and sustainable strategy, which enhanced soil fertility and combating water
scarcity. Rezapour et al. (2019) studied Cd accumulation in wheat grain cultivated in
the wastewater irrigated agriculture field of Western Azerbaijan Province, northwestern Iran. The accumulation of Cd and its translocation and carcinogenic health
risk were estimated through food chain contamination that ultimately affect the
human life. Cadmium (Cd) is non-biodegradable and highly persistent in nature.
Translocation factor for Cd through root to grain ranged from 0.18–0.24 and its
carcinogenic health risk was found to be low to moderate risk category (Rezapour
et al. 2019). Wastewater irrigation from outlet of electroplating factory threatened
the agriculture quality (Xiao et al. 2019). Soil pH as well as concentrations of total
and secondary phase fraction, i.e., bioavailable fraction (acid-soluble, reducible,
oxidizable, and residual fraction) of heavy metals lowered down as the distance
increased from electroplating factories. Redundancy analysis and stepwise regression analysis showed that soil pH, silt content, amorphous Fe oxides, and Mn oxides
affected the Secondary Phase Fraction. Concentration of heavy metal concentration
in soil and varied up to 68.8% and 43.5%, respectively.
124
P. K. Singh and R. K. Sharma