72
shorebirds like American golden-plover (Pluvialis dominica), upland sandpiper
(Bartramia longicauda), and buff-breasted sandpiper (Tryngites subruficollis) prefer dry habitats having low vegetation (Myers and Myers 1979; Isacch and Martínez
2003). The aforesaid species regularly utilize crop pasture migratory sojourn (Strum
et al. 2008) and devour a variety of agricultural pests, whose emergence time coincide with the migration period of birds and, thereby, may come into direct contact
with organophosphate and carbamates (Houston and Bowen 2001; Nagoshi and
Meagher 2004; Isacch et al. 2005). On the other hand, wetland species, such as least
sandpiper (Calidris minutilla), pectoral sandpiper (C. melanotos), and whiterumped sandpiper (C. fuscicollis), prefer habitats with standing water and intermittently visit rice fields and other agricultural areas where organophosphate and
carbamates are widely used (Hands et al. 1991; Skagen and Knopf 1993; Twedt
et al. 1998; Skagen et al. 2005; Blanco et al. 2006). Carcasses of few shorebirds
have been found in rice fields shortly after carbofuran (a potent anticholinesterase)
application, as reported from a number of field survey (Flickinger et al. 1980, 1986;
Littrell 1998).
3.6 Conclusion
Application of synthetic pesticides was initially aimed to intensify agricultural
productivity and food availability; however, their negative effects have overweighed their welfares. From the past decades, prevalence of pesticide poisoning
of birds and the hazardous effect due to direct and indirect poisoning of synthetic
pesticides cannot be overlooked; second-generation insecticides, organophosphates, and carbamates are used in routine agricultural practices, and their effects
on avian fauna are varied depending on the plausibility of exposure and the degree
of toxic level exposure of the pesticide. However, the likelihood of exposure and
related lethal and sublethal effects of the pesticides are formidable to study at the
field level. Conversely, it can be stated that the broad-spectrum nature of organophosphates and carbamates makes birds more liable to of exposure, when they are
present in the neighbouring areas at the time of applying pesticide, or immediately
after that, or getting contact with a pesticide contaminated prey. Migratory birds
are more prone to sublethal effects of pesticides having cholinesterase inhibitors
that can have significant effects on migratory behaviour of the birds.
The above discussion tries to encompass the severe consequences of indiscriminate pesticide application on avian population. To understand the range to which
birds are exposed to pesticides, the foremost requirement is to find out the factors
influencing exposure and to figure out preventive measures that might be applied to
minimize the exposure. Best management practices integrating control in agricultural practices, use of pest resistant cultivars of plants, and rational use of synthetic
pesticide could reduce hazards of pesticide application. Further, advanced
approaches in biotechnology and nanotechnology may facilitate the development of
pesticides with nominal adverse effects. Community development and extension
A. Mitra et al.
shorebirds like American golden-plover (Pluvialis dominica), upland sandpiper
(Bartramia longicauda), and buff-breasted sandpiper (Tryngites subruficollis) prefer dry habitats having low vegetation (Myers and Myers 1979; Isacch and Martínez
2003). The aforesaid species regularly utilize crop pasture migratory sojourn (Strum
et al. 2008) and devour a variety of agricultural pests, whose emergence time coincide with the migration period of birds and, thereby, may come into direct contact
with organophosphate and carbamates (Houston and Bowen 2001; Nagoshi and
Meagher 2004; Isacch et al. 2005). On the other hand, wetland species, such as least
sandpiper (Calidris minutilla), pectoral sandpiper (C. melanotos), and whiterumped sandpiper (C. fuscicollis), prefer habitats with standing water and intermittently visit rice fields and other agricultural areas where organophosphate and
carbamates are widely used (Hands et al. 1991; Skagen and Knopf 1993; Twedt
et al. 1998; Skagen et al. 2005; Blanco et al. 2006). Carcasses of few shorebirds
have been found in rice fields shortly after carbofuran (a potent anticholinesterase)
application, as reported from a number of field survey (Flickinger et al. 1980, 1986;
Littrell 1998).
3.6 Conclusion
Application of synthetic pesticides was initially aimed to intensify agricultural
productivity and food availability; however, their negative effects have overweighed their welfares. From the past decades, prevalence of pesticide poisoning
of birds and the hazardous effect due to direct and indirect poisoning of synthetic
pesticides cannot be overlooked; second-generation insecticides, organophosphates, and carbamates are used in routine agricultural practices, and their effects
on avian fauna are varied depending on the plausibility of exposure and the degree
of toxic level exposure of the pesticide. However, the likelihood of exposure and
related lethal and sublethal effects of the pesticides are formidable to study at the
field level. Conversely, it can be stated that the broad-spectrum nature of organophosphates and carbamates makes birds more liable to of exposure, when they are
present in the neighbouring areas at the time of applying pesticide, or immediately
after that, or getting contact with a pesticide contaminated prey. Migratory birds
are more prone to sublethal effects of pesticides having cholinesterase inhibitors
that can have significant effects on migratory behaviour of the birds.
The above discussion tries to encompass the severe consequences of indiscriminate pesticide application on avian population. To understand the range to which
birds are exposed to pesticides, the foremost requirement is to find out the factors
influencing exposure and to figure out preventive measures that might be applied to
minimize the exposure. Best management practices integrating control in agricultural practices, use of pest resistant cultivars of plants, and rational use of synthetic
pesticide could reduce hazards of pesticide application. Further, advanced
approaches in biotechnology and nanotechnology may facilitate the development of
pesticides with nominal adverse effects. Community development and extension
A. Mitra et al.