146
inside the human body (Verlinden et al. 2007; Li et al. 2016), which are useful properties for delayed release of drugs (Rodriguez-Valera 1991). The hydroxybutyrate
monomer is a blood constituent, and therefore, polyhydroxybutyrate can be potentially used in medical applications such as wound management and vascular system
devices (Castilho et al. 2009). It is also explored for potential use with anti-HIV
drugs and antibiotics thanks to its biocompatibility (Tan et al. 2014). It has been
used to produce tissue scaffolds as well as artificial heart valves (Lutke-Eversloh
and Steinbuchel 2004). Moreover, thanks to its biocompatibility, polyhydroxyalkanoates are a suitable component for skincare products (Chee et al. 2010) and
personal hygiene products such as diapers (Verlinden et al. 2007).
Polyhydroxyalkanoates have already been used in few packaging applications such
as shampoo bottles, plastic bags, feminine hygiene products, carpets, and others
(Dietrich et al. 2017). More recently, polyhydroxyalkanoates were used in toners for
printers and in adhesives (Verlinden et al. 2007).
There are more future possible applications for polyhydroxyalkanoates that are
currently under consideration. For instance, polyhydroxyalkanoates were explored
as an option for the production of wood plastic composites where the petroleumbased matrix is replaced by polyhydroxyalkanoates to produce biodegradable wood
plastic composites (Vandi et al. 2018). In the agricultural field, polyhydroxyalkanoates could potentially be used for the encapsulation of fertilizers and seeds to delay
the release as they are biodegradable (Verlinden et al. 2007). However, one of the
limitations of polyhydroxyalkanoates resides in their low resistance toward acids
and bases, which can make them dissolve (Bugnicourt et al. 2014).
5.10 Sustainability Assessment
The premise of moving to bioplastics is that they can help conserve fossil resources
by reducing their use while at the same time reducing emissions of CO 2 (Bugnicourt
et al. 2014) and accumulation of nonbiodegradable plastics in the environment.
There are two main approaches to evaluate the impact of polyhydroxyalkanoates
production. Techno-economic analysis, which considers the economic performance
of the process, and sustainability assessment, which evaluates the environmental
and social performance (Dietrich et al. 2017). In order to evaluate the environmental
impact, different tools can be employed depending on various aspects of sustainability. Life cycle analysis (LCA) is the most widely used assessment tool as it
evaluates the environmental impact of the entire production process, starting from
biomass collection to the end use of the product. Another popular tool is the sustainable process index where the entire chain of polyhydroxyalkanoates production is
measured.
Based on conducted LCAs, the production of polyhydroxyalkanoates by microbial mixed cultures treating industrial wastewaters is more advantageous compared
to pure cultures fed agricultural feedstocks, both environmentally and economically
(Dacosta et al. 2015; Gurieff and Lant 2007). A significant portion of these benefits
S. Sali and H. R. Mackey
inside the human body (Verlinden et al. 2007; Li et al. 2016), which are useful properties for delayed release of drugs (Rodriguez-Valera 1991). The hydroxybutyrate
monomer is a blood constituent, and therefore, polyhydroxybutyrate can be potentially used in medical applications such as wound management and vascular system
devices (Castilho et al. 2009). It is also explored for potential use with anti-HIV
drugs and antibiotics thanks to its biocompatibility (Tan et al. 2014). It has been
used to produce tissue scaffolds as well as artificial heart valves (Lutke-Eversloh
and Steinbuchel 2004). Moreover, thanks to its biocompatibility, polyhydroxyalkanoates are a suitable component for skincare products (Chee et al. 2010) and
personal hygiene products such as diapers (Verlinden et al. 2007).
Polyhydroxyalkanoates have already been used in few packaging applications such
as shampoo bottles, plastic bags, feminine hygiene products, carpets, and others
(Dietrich et al. 2017). More recently, polyhydroxyalkanoates were used in toners for
printers and in adhesives (Verlinden et al. 2007).
There are more future possible applications for polyhydroxyalkanoates that are
currently under consideration. For instance, polyhydroxyalkanoates were explored
as an option for the production of wood plastic composites where the petroleumbased matrix is replaced by polyhydroxyalkanoates to produce biodegradable wood
plastic composites (Vandi et al. 2018). In the agricultural field, polyhydroxyalkanoates could potentially be used for the encapsulation of fertilizers and seeds to delay
the release as they are biodegradable (Verlinden et al. 2007). However, one of the
limitations of polyhydroxyalkanoates resides in their low resistance toward acids
and bases, which can make them dissolve (Bugnicourt et al. 2014).
5.10 Sustainability Assessment
The premise of moving to bioplastics is that they can help conserve fossil resources
by reducing their use while at the same time reducing emissions of CO 2 (Bugnicourt
et al. 2014) and accumulation of nonbiodegradable plastics in the environment.
There are two main approaches to evaluate the impact of polyhydroxyalkanoates
production. Techno-economic analysis, which considers the economic performance
of the process, and sustainability assessment, which evaluates the environmental
and social performance (Dietrich et al. 2017). In order to evaluate the environmental
impact, different tools can be employed depending on various aspects of sustainability. Life cycle analysis (LCA) is the most widely used assessment tool as it
evaluates the environmental impact of the entire production process, starting from
biomass collection to the end use of the product. Another popular tool is the sustainable process index where the entire chain of polyhydroxyalkanoates production is
measured.
Based on conducted LCAs, the production of polyhydroxyalkanoates by microbial mixed cultures treating industrial wastewaters is more advantageous compared
to pure cultures fed agricultural feedstocks, both environmentally and economically
(Dacosta et al. 2015; Gurieff and Lant 2007). A significant portion of these benefits
S. Sali and H. R. Mackey