25
2.6 Conclusions
Much is known about details of the microbiology, biochemistry, molecular biology,
evolution and genetics of N 2 fixation that goes far beyond this short review, primarily from studies of terrestrial and freshwater microorganisms. Although some features are highly conserved across taxa, such as the structure of the nitrogenase
proteins, there are diverse features of O 2 protection, gene regulation, and symbiosis.
Most studies have used model cultivable systems, and it is known that there are
diverse uncultivated diazotrophs in terrestrial as well as aquatic environments, so
much remains to be learned about the intricacies of biological N 2 fixation, microbial
diversity and symbiosis.
References
Artz, J. H., Zadvornyy, O. A., Mulder, D. W., King, P. W., & Peters, J. W. (2017). Structural characterization of poised states in the oxygen sensitive hydrogenases and nitrogenases. Methods
in Enzymology, 595, 213–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.mie.2017.07.005. PMID – 28882202.
Aurora, R., & Pakrasi, H. (2008). Global transcriptomic analysis of Cyanothece 51142 reveals
robust diurnal oscillation of central metabolic processes. Proceedings of the National Academy
of Sciences of the United States of America, 105(16), 6156.
Bar-Shmuel, N., Behar, A., & Segoli, M. (2019). What do we know about biological nitrogen fixation in insects? Evidence and implications for the insect and the ecosystem. Journal of Insect
Science. https://doi.org/10.1111/1744- 7917.12697. PMID – 31207108.
Benavides, M., Bednarz, V. N., & Ferrier-Pagès, C. (2017). Diazotrophs: Overlooked key players
within the coral symbiosis and tropical reef ecosystems? Frontiers in Marine Science, 4(10).
https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2017.00010.
Benton, P. M. C., Sen, S., & Peters, J. W. (2002). Chapter 2 – Nitrogenase structure. In G. J. Leigh
(Ed.), Nitrogen fixation at the millennium (pp. 35–71). Amsterdam: Elsevier Science.
Bergman, B., Gallon, J. R., Rai, A. N., & Stal, L. J. (1997). N 2 fixation by non-heterocystous cyanobacteria. FEMS Microbiology Reviews, 19, 139–185.
Berman-Frank, I., Lundgren, P., & Falkowski, P. (2003). Nitrogen fixation and photosynthetic
oxygen evolution in cyanobacteria. Research in Microbiology, 154(3), 157–164.
Berry, A. M., Harriott, O. T., Moreau, R. A., Osman, S. F., Benson, D. R., et al. (1993). Hopanoid
lipids compose the Frankia vesicle envelope, presumptive barrier of oxygen diffusion to nitrogenase. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 90(13), 6091–6094. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.90.13.6091.
Bishop, P. E., & Premakumar, R. (1992). Alternative nitrogen fixation systems. In G. Stacey,
R. Burris, & H. Evans (Eds.), Biological nitrogen fixation (pp. 736–762). New York: Routledge,
Chapman and Hall.
Boyd, E., & Peters, J. (2013). New insights into the evolutionary history of biological nitrogen
fixation. Frontiers in Microbiology, 4, 201.
Boyd, E., Anbar, A., Miller, S., Hamilton, T., Lavin, M., et al. (2011). A late methanogen origin for
molybdenum-dependent nitrogenase. Geobiology, 9(3), 221–232.
Burén, S., Jiménez-Vicente, E., Echavarri-Erasun, C., & Rubio, L. M. (2020). Biosynthesis of
nitrogenase cofactors. Chemical Reviews, 120(12), 4921–4968. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.
chemrev.9b00489. PMID – 31975585.
Carpenter, E. J., & Culliney, J. L. (1975). Nitrogen fixation in marine shipworms. Science,
187(4176), 551–552.
References
2.6 Conclusions
Much is known about details of the microbiology, biochemistry, molecular biology,
evolution and genetics of N 2 fixation that goes far beyond this short review, primarily from studies of terrestrial and freshwater microorganisms. Although some features are highly conserved across taxa, such as the structure of the nitrogenase
proteins, there are diverse features of O 2 protection, gene regulation, and symbiosis.
Most studies have used model cultivable systems, and it is known that there are
diverse uncultivated diazotrophs in terrestrial as well as aquatic environments, so
much remains to be learned about the intricacies of biological N 2 fixation, microbial
diversity and symbiosis.
References
Artz, J. H., Zadvornyy, O. A., Mulder, D. W., King, P. W., & Peters, J. W. (2017). Structural characterization of poised states in the oxygen sensitive hydrogenases and nitrogenases. Methods
in Enzymology, 595, 213–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.mie.2017.07.005. PMID – 28882202.
Aurora, R., & Pakrasi, H. (2008). Global transcriptomic analysis of Cyanothece 51142 reveals
robust diurnal oscillation of central metabolic processes. Proceedings of the National Academy
of Sciences of the United States of America, 105(16), 6156.
Bar-Shmuel, N., Behar, A., & Segoli, M. (2019). What do we know about biological nitrogen fixation in insects? Evidence and implications for the insect and the ecosystem. Journal of Insect
Science. https://doi.org/10.1111/1744- 7917.12697. PMID – 31207108.
Benavides, M., Bednarz, V. N., & Ferrier-Pagès, C. (2017). Diazotrophs: Overlooked key players
within the coral symbiosis and tropical reef ecosystems? Frontiers in Marine Science, 4(10).
https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2017.00010.
Benton, P. M. C., Sen, S., & Peters, J. W. (2002). Chapter 2 – Nitrogenase structure. In G. J. Leigh
(Ed.), Nitrogen fixation at the millennium (pp. 35–71). Amsterdam: Elsevier Science.
Bergman, B., Gallon, J. R., Rai, A. N., & Stal, L. J. (1997). N 2 fixation by non-heterocystous cyanobacteria. FEMS Microbiology Reviews, 19, 139–185.
Berman-Frank, I., Lundgren, P., & Falkowski, P. (2003). Nitrogen fixation and photosynthetic
oxygen evolution in cyanobacteria. Research in Microbiology, 154(3), 157–164.
Berry, A. M., Harriott, O. T., Moreau, R. A., Osman, S. F., Benson, D. R., et al. (1993). Hopanoid
lipids compose the Frankia vesicle envelope, presumptive barrier of oxygen diffusion to nitrogenase. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 90(13), 6091–6094. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.90.13.6091.
Bishop, P. E., & Premakumar, R. (1992). Alternative nitrogen fixation systems. In G. Stacey,
R. Burris, & H. Evans (Eds.), Biological nitrogen fixation (pp. 736–762). New York: Routledge,
Chapman and Hall.
Boyd, E., & Peters, J. (2013). New insights into the evolutionary history of biological nitrogen
fixation. Frontiers in Microbiology, 4, 201.
Boyd, E., Anbar, A., Miller, S., Hamilton, T., Lavin, M., et al. (2011). A late methanogen origin for
molybdenum-dependent nitrogenase. Geobiology, 9(3), 221–232.
Burén, S., Jiménez-Vicente, E., Echavarri-Erasun, C., & Rubio, L. M. (2020). Biosynthesis of
nitrogenase cofactors. Chemical Reviews, 120(12), 4921–4968. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.
chemrev.9b00489. PMID – 31975585.
Carpenter, E. J., & Culliney, J. L. (1975). Nitrogen fixation in marine shipworms. Science,
187(4176), 551–552.
References