17
and inorganic additives tested for reducing Zn corrosion. Unmitigated corrosion
leads to state-of-charge imbalance between the cathode and anode, ultimately causing cell failure. Historically, mercury and lead were used to slow down corrosion
[81–83]. During the 1980s and 1990s, commercial alkaline Mn-Zn batteries went
through a redevelopment phase to remove mercury from the zinc electrode (Binder
and Kordesch, [112]). The European Union prohibits the sale of batteries containing
more than 0.0005% mercury or 0.002% cadmium by weight and makes all manufacturers of lead-acid batteries responsible to ensure a high percentage of their products are recycled [84]. In the USA, sale of products containing mercury compounds
is banned, and concentrations in any single component may not rise above natural
background concentrations [85]. Similarly, strict regulations apply to cadmium.
Lead components are still in widespread use in consumer products, obviously in
Pb-acid batteries, but regulations exist to safeguard disposal and enforce recycling.
Industrial energy storage facilities are sequestered from the public, and may benefit
from continued use of lead, perhaps in zinc anodes. The coming decade will determine the long-term fate of lead in energy storage.
3.3 Recent Research on Nickel Cathodes
For the past few decades, research was influenced by the massive deployment of
Ni-MH and Ni-Cd batteries in both industrial and consumer electronics. For example, in 2006, the use of battery technologies in mobile cell phones was 44% Ni-Cd,
28% Ni-MH, and 27% lithium ion [86], and over ten million hybrid electric vehicles
utilizing Ni-MH batteries were produced globally (nearly 100 GWh of nickel
electrodes).
Most of the modern literature on Ni electrodes aims to improve cycling performance by modifying the geometry or chemistry of the NiOOH particles. Several
publications show improved cycling voltages and capacity with smaller particle size
[36, 37] or by using additives such as Co, Ca, or Zn [36]. Cheng et al. [88] cycled
Co-doped NiOOH electrodes 500 times with zincate concentrations up to 0.6 M and
Fig. 13 (a) Schematic of the Zn-Al hydrotalcite. (b) X-Ray Diffraction pattern of powder
Zn-Al-Bi hydrotalcite produced for testing the reproducibility of [62]
Aqueous Mn-Zn and Ni-Zn Batteries for Sustainable Energy Storage
and inorganic additives tested for reducing Zn corrosion. Unmitigated corrosion
leads to state-of-charge imbalance between the cathode and anode, ultimately causing cell failure. Historically, mercury and lead were used to slow down corrosion
[81–83]. During the 1980s and 1990s, commercial alkaline Mn-Zn batteries went
through a redevelopment phase to remove mercury from the zinc electrode (Binder
and Kordesch, [112]). The European Union prohibits the sale of batteries containing
more than 0.0005% mercury or 0.002% cadmium by weight and makes all manufacturers of lead-acid batteries responsible to ensure a high percentage of their products are recycled [84]. In the USA, sale of products containing mercury compounds
is banned, and concentrations in any single component may not rise above natural
background concentrations [85]. Similarly, strict regulations apply to cadmium.
Lead components are still in widespread use in consumer products, obviously in
Pb-acid batteries, but regulations exist to safeguard disposal and enforce recycling.
Industrial energy storage facilities are sequestered from the public, and may benefit
from continued use of lead, perhaps in zinc anodes. The coming decade will determine the long-term fate of lead in energy storage.
3.3 Recent Research on Nickel Cathodes
For the past few decades, research was influenced by the massive deployment of
Ni-MH and Ni-Cd batteries in both industrial and consumer electronics. For example, in 2006, the use of battery technologies in mobile cell phones was 44% Ni-Cd,
28% Ni-MH, and 27% lithium ion [86], and over ten million hybrid electric vehicles
utilizing Ni-MH batteries were produced globally (nearly 100 GWh of nickel
electrodes).
Most of the modern literature on Ni electrodes aims to improve cycling performance by modifying the geometry or chemistry of the NiOOH particles. Several
publications show improved cycling voltages and capacity with smaller particle size
[36, 37] or by using additives such as Co, Ca, or Zn [36]. Cheng et al. [88] cycled
Co-doped NiOOH electrodes 500 times with zincate concentrations up to 0.6 M and
Fig. 13 (a) Schematic of the Zn-Al hydrotalcite. (b) X-Ray Diffraction pattern of powder
Zn-Al-Bi hydrotalcite produced for testing the reproducibility of [62]
Aqueous Mn-Zn and Ni-Zn Batteries for Sustainable Energy Storage