472
L. Ferrini et al.
to “Promote and organize consultation between users of the national portion of the
basin; Contribute to the sustainable management of the natural resources of the Niger
Basin; Mobilize users at the national and regional levels for greater participation in
decision-making about the future of the basin; Promote the capacity building of users
of natural resources at local, national and regional levels.”
This language suggests a top-down approach, which threatens to significantly
reduce the agency of users compared to the objectives initially formulated in 2006
(interviews with NUC members in Niger and Guinea). System boundaries are limited
to the national portions of the basin, and participation modalities focus more on
mobilization than on planning, decision-making, and implementation (KPMG 2016;
CRU-BN 2017). The role of stakeholders—users themselves—remains a mostly
passive one, emphasizing the need to co-opt them to buy into schemes developed
at higher levels (interviews with CNU members in Guinea and Niger). The contributions of users to actual decision-making are channeled through modalities developed and controlled by stakeholders and structures other than the local communities
themselves (Eau Vive 2006, 2007; Barry 2010). Local knowledge is thus marginalized (interviews with NUCs representatives) and its impact on decision-making
is diluted. On the Arnstein ladder of participation, interviewees characterize their
involvement as 3 (informing), 4 (consultation), and 5 (placation), which make up
the second of three levels of “tokenism.” There was no consensus among interviewees about the cause(s); some perceived the intention to marginalize by their NUCs
(e.g., NUC Nigeria) and others blame the limited capacities of user organizations
(NBA representatives).
In 2014, the NBA planned the “revitalization project of the partnership NBACivil Society of the Niger basin“ for the period 2014–2016. The project aimed to
strengthen the NBA-civil society partnership through the implementation of the NBA
Investment Program. But the project was never launched due to lack of funding, with
NUCs reporting “enormous difficulties due to the lack of funds as well as difficulties
in the implementation of the memorandum of understanding” (CRU-BN 2017). The
lack of financial resources is explained by non-payment of membership fees and
dues of the NUC members, in addition to the failure to regularly finance the effort
by the NBA and the member states. In addition, the NUCs report a consistent lack
of regular communication with the NBA national structures that formally supervise
them, as well as deficiencies in regular reporting and reaching consensus on annual
work plans (KPMG 2016; Edl 2017).
At present, NUCs are not actively involved in the preparation and implementation
of projects and programs. This makes them vulnerable to resource allocation decisions made at other levels and without sufficient input from users. This is in spite of
policies to encourage greater stakeholder involvement and the sensitivity of technical
partners to these issues, e.g., ECOWAS Directive announcement of the construction
of large dams in West Africa, 2017; the Water Charter of the Niger Basin Authority,
2008); and coalitions such as the Network of Mayors on water infrastructures in
West Africa. Further examples of these challenges are provided in the following case
studies.
L. Ferrini et al.
to “Promote and organize consultation between users of the national portion of the
basin; Contribute to the sustainable management of the natural resources of the Niger
Basin; Mobilize users at the national and regional levels for greater participation in
decision-making about the future of the basin; Promote the capacity building of users
of natural resources at local, national and regional levels.”
This language suggests a top-down approach, which threatens to significantly
reduce the agency of users compared to the objectives initially formulated in 2006
(interviews with NUC members in Niger and Guinea). System boundaries are limited
to the national portions of the basin, and participation modalities focus more on
mobilization than on planning, decision-making, and implementation (KPMG 2016;
CRU-BN 2017). The role of stakeholders—users themselves—remains a mostly
passive one, emphasizing the need to co-opt them to buy into schemes developed
at higher levels (interviews with CNU members in Guinea and Niger). The contributions of users to actual decision-making are channeled through modalities developed and controlled by stakeholders and structures other than the local communities
themselves (Eau Vive 2006, 2007; Barry 2010). Local knowledge is thus marginalized (interviews with NUCs representatives) and its impact on decision-making
is diluted. On the Arnstein ladder of participation, interviewees characterize their
involvement as 3 (informing), 4 (consultation), and 5 (placation), which make up
the second of three levels of “tokenism.” There was no consensus among interviewees about the cause(s); some perceived the intention to marginalize by their NUCs
(e.g., NUC Nigeria) and others blame the limited capacities of user organizations
(NBA representatives).
In 2014, the NBA planned the “revitalization project of the partnership NBACivil Society of the Niger basin“ for the period 2014–2016. The project aimed to
strengthen the NBA-civil society partnership through the implementation of the NBA
Investment Program. But the project was never launched due to lack of funding, with
NUCs reporting “enormous difficulties due to the lack of funds as well as difficulties
in the implementation of the memorandum of understanding” (CRU-BN 2017). The
lack of financial resources is explained by non-payment of membership fees and
dues of the NUC members, in addition to the failure to regularly finance the effort
by the NBA and the member states. In addition, the NUCs report a consistent lack
of regular communication with the NBA national structures that formally supervise
them, as well as deficiencies in regular reporting and reaching consensus on annual
work plans (KPMG 2016; Edl 2017).
At present, NUCs are not actively involved in the preparation and implementation
of projects and programs. This makes them vulnerable to resource allocation decisions made at other levels and without sufficient input from users. This is in spite of
policies to encourage greater stakeholder involvement and the sensitivity of technical
partners to these issues, e.g., ECOWAS Directive announcement of the construction
of large dams in West Africa, 2017; the Water Charter of the Niger Basin Authority,
2008); and coalitions such as the Network of Mayors on water infrastructures in
West Africa. Further examples of these challenges are provided in the following case
studies.