65
host’s tissues, but it interferes with the defense responses of the host, rendering it
susceptible to the parasite, resulting in its demise.
A similar scenario occurs with many pathogenic bacteria that are vectored by
arthropods. While inside the vector, the bacteria cause no obvious damage. After
being introduced by the vector into a vertebrate host, however, the bacteria can have
disastrous effects. Variable factors include the nutrition or stage of the host and
whether the host is already infected with other microbial agents. In reference to the
latter condition, a detailed examination of an insect thought to have a single virus
infection revealed that it was actually infected with five separate viruses (Hess et al.
1979), all of which could be detrimental and produce a synergistic effect on the host.
Acknowledgments The author thanks Roberta Poinar for comments on the manuscript and
CEME-Sul FURG for permission to use the photograph in Fig. 2.25.
References
Auezova G, Brushko Z, Kubykin R (1990) Feeding of biting midges (Leptoconopidae) on reptiles.
In: Proceeding of the 2nd International Congress of Dipterology, Bratislava, Czechoslovakia,
September 1990, p 12
Baker R (1965) The evolution of parasitic protozoa. In: Taylor AER (ed) Evolution of parasites.
Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, pp 1–27
Barratt BI, Evans AA, Stoltz DB, Vinson SB, Easingwood R (1999) Virus-like particles in the
ovaries of Microctonus aethiopoides Loan (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), a parasitoid of adult
weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). J Invertebr Pathol 73:182–188
Berggren WA, Van Couvering JA (1974) The late Neogene and Palaeogene. Palaeoclimat
Palaeoecol 16:1–216
Bird FT (1949) Tumours associated with a virus infection in an insect. Nature 4150:777–778
Bos KI, Schuenemann VJ, Golding GB et al (2011) A draft genome of Yersinia pestis from victims
of the Black Death. Nature 478(7370):506–510
Boucot AJ (1990) Evolutionary paleobiology of behavior and coevolution. Elsevier,
Amsterdam, p 735
Boucot AJ, Poinar GO Jr (2010) Fossil behavior compendium. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL,
pp 1–424
Cano RJ, Borucki MK (1995) Revival and identification of bacterial spores in 25- to 40-millionyear-old Dominican amber. Science 268(5213):1060–1064
Cano RJ, Borucki MK, Higby-Schweitzer M, Poinar HN, Poinar GO Jr, Pollard KJ (1994) Bacillus
DNA in fossil bees: an ancient symbiosis? J App Environ Microbiol 60:2164–2167
Cerisola JA, del Prado CE, Rohwedder R, Bozzini JP (1971) Blastocrithidia triatomae n. sp. found
in Triatoma infestans from Argentina. J Protozool 18(3):503–506
Cruickhank RD, Ko K (2003) Geology of an amber locality in the Hukawng valley, northern
Myanmar. J Asian Earth Sci 21:441–455
De Baets K, Littlewood DTJ (2015) The importance of fossils in understanding the evolution of
parasites and their vectors. Adv Parasitol 90:1–51
De Baets K, Huntley JW, Klompmaker AA, Schiffbauer JD, Muscente AD (2021) The fossil record
of parasitism: Its extent and taphonomic constraints. In: De Baets K, Huntley JW (eds) The
evolution and fossil record of parasitism: Coevolution and paleoparasitological techniques.
Topics in Geobiology 50
2 Fossil Record of Viruses, Parasitic Bacteria and Parasitic Protozoa
host’s tissues, but it interferes with the defense responses of the host, rendering it
susceptible to the parasite, resulting in its demise.
A similar scenario occurs with many pathogenic bacteria that are vectored by
arthropods. While inside the vector, the bacteria cause no obvious damage. After
being introduced by the vector into a vertebrate host, however, the bacteria can have
disastrous effects. Variable factors include the nutrition or stage of the host and
whether the host is already infected with other microbial agents. In reference to the
latter condition, a detailed examination of an insect thought to have a single virus
infection revealed that it was actually infected with five separate viruses (Hess et al.
1979), all of which could be detrimental and produce a synergistic effect on the host.
Acknowledgments The author thanks Roberta Poinar for comments on the manuscript and
CEME-Sul FURG for permission to use the photograph in Fig. 2.25.
References
Auezova G, Brushko Z, Kubykin R (1990) Feeding of biting midges (Leptoconopidae) on reptiles.
In: Proceeding of the 2nd International Congress of Dipterology, Bratislava, Czechoslovakia,
September 1990, p 12
Baker R (1965) The evolution of parasitic protozoa. In: Taylor AER (ed) Evolution of parasites.
Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, pp 1–27
Barratt BI, Evans AA, Stoltz DB, Vinson SB, Easingwood R (1999) Virus-like particles in the
ovaries of Microctonus aethiopoides Loan (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), a parasitoid of adult
weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). J Invertebr Pathol 73:182–188
Berggren WA, Van Couvering JA (1974) The late Neogene and Palaeogene. Palaeoclimat
Palaeoecol 16:1–216
Bird FT (1949) Tumours associated with a virus infection in an insect. Nature 4150:777–778
Bos KI, Schuenemann VJ, Golding GB et al (2011) A draft genome of Yersinia pestis from victims
of the Black Death. Nature 478(7370):506–510
Boucot AJ (1990) Evolutionary paleobiology of behavior and coevolution. Elsevier,
Amsterdam, p 735
Boucot AJ, Poinar GO Jr (2010) Fossil behavior compendium. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL,
pp 1–424
Cano RJ, Borucki MK (1995) Revival and identification of bacterial spores in 25- to 40-millionyear-old Dominican amber. Science 268(5213):1060–1064
Cano RJ, Borucki MK, Higby-Schweitzer M, Poinar HN, Poinar GO Jr, Pollard KJ (1994) Bacillus
DNA in fossil bees: an ancient symbiosis? J App Environ Microbiol 60:2164–2167
Cerisola JA, del Prado CE, Rohwedder R, Bozzini JP (1971) Blastocrithidia triatomae n. sp. found
in Triatoma infestans from Argentina. J Protozool 18(3):503–506
Cruickhank RD, Ko K (2003) Geology of an amber locality in the Hukawng valley, northern
Myanmar. J Asian Earth Sci 21:441–455
De Baets K, Littlewood DTJ (2015) The importance of fossils in understanding the evolution of
parasites and their vectors. Adv Parasitol 90:1–51
De Baets K, Huntley JW, Klompmaker AA, Schiffbauer JD, Muscente AD (2021) The fossil record
of parasitism: Its extent and taphonomic constraints. In: De Baets K, Huntley JW (eds) The
evolution and fossil record of parasitism: Coevolution and paleoparasitological techniques.
Topics in Geobiology 50
2 Fossil Record of Viruses, Parasitic Bacteria and Parasitic Protozoa