486
(Dunne et al. 2014; Labandeira and Dunne 2014), the highest trophic level in the
forest web was a parasitoid fly (Wedmann 2007) (Fig. 11.22).
Dominican Amber is the fourth and last deposit after the MMPR to be examined.
Dominican Amber originates from the Cordillera Septentrional, the northwest–
southeast trending mountain axis along the Cordillera Oriental that parallels the
coast of the Dominican Republic (Penney 2010). The amber is associated with lignite seams that are interspersed among sandstone and occasionally siltstone in the
La Toca and Yanigua Formations that represent environments close to sea level that
subsequently have been uplifted and deformed (Iturralde-Vinent and MacPhee
1996). The age of Dominican Amber has been controversial for the past 35 years.
Based on a variety of techniques, the age of Dominican Amber is now usually considered as lower Miocene (Grimaldi 1996; Iturralde-Vinent 2001; Penney 2010),
equivalent to 16–23 Ma (Walker et al. 2013). The midpoint of this range is about
21 Ma, which is the often-used age of Dominican Amber. The source of the amber
is the extinct species of the tree Hymenaea protera (Fabaceae), whose leaves, stipules, buds, flowers and pollen are often found dispersed within the amber. The
Dominican Amber Biota constitutes one of the most diverse and abundant amber
biotas known, and contains a broad spectrum of insect taxa (Arillo and Ortuño
2005; Penney 2010; Poinar Jr 2010). A parasitoid-bearing lineage of Neuroptera is
Hemerobioformia (Mantispidae) and Coleoptera that contributed two parasitoidbearing groups: Staphylinoidea (Staphylinidae) and Tenebrionoidea (Ripiphoridae).
Strepsipteran parasitoids were Neostrepsiptera consisting of Bohartillidae,
Elenchidae, Myrmecolacidae and Protelencholacidae. Parasitoid-bearing dipteran
lineages are Culicomorpha (Chironomidae), Bibionomorpha (Mycetophilidae),
Nemestrinimorpha (Acroceridae), and in Muscomorpha: Asiloidea (Asilidae),
Empidoidea (Empididae), Aschiza (Phoridae, Pipunculidae) and Schizophora
(Muscidae, Tachinidae). For Trichoptera, the sole parasitoid-bearing lineage,
Hydroptilidae, is present. Similarly, the obligately parasitoid lineage of Lepidoptera,
Zygaenoidea (Epipyropidae), has been recorded. Hymenopteran parasitoid-bearing
lineages were the most abundant compared to the seven preceding biotas and contained many major elements of the MMPR. These elements were Orussoidea
(Orussidae), Evanioidea (Evaniidae), Platygastroidea (Platygastridae, Scelionidae),
Ceraphronoidea (Ceraphronidae), Chalcidoidea (Encyrtidae, Eulophidae,
Eupelmidae, Leucospidae, Mymaridae, Pteromalidae, Torymidae), Ichneumonoidea
(Braconidae), and the aculeate Chrysidoidea (Bethylidae, Chrysididae, Dryinidae,
Sclerogibbidae, Scolebythidae), Vespoidea (Mutillidae, Pompilidae) and Apoidea
(Crabronidae, Sphecidae) (Arillo and Ortuño 2005; Engel 2008b; Penney 2010;
Poinar Jr 2010) (Table 11.1). The diversity of parasitoid-associated hymenopteran
families in the Dominican Amber Biota is 22 families and 94 species, a considerable
increase over the Messel Biota but very roughly comparable to the earlier Canadian
and Myanmar amber biotas. It appears that the Dominican Amber Biota is positioned in the middle of a plateau of parasitoid diversity representing the 40 millionyear- long interval from the middle Eocene (Lutetian Stage) to the late Miocene
(Messinian Stage).The parasitoid guilds have a very modern cast, and notably none
of the family-level lineages are extinct.
C. C. Labandeira and L. Li
(Dunne et al. 2014; Labandeira and Dunne 2014), the highest trophic level in the
forest web was a parasitoid fly (Wedmann 2007) (Fig. 11.22).
Dominican Amber is the fourth and last deposit after the MMPR to be examined.
Dominican Amber originates from the Cordillera Septentrional, the northwest–
southeast trending mountain axis along the Cordillera Oriental that parallels the
coast of the Dominican Republic (Penney 2010). The amber is associated with lignite seams that are interspersed among sandstone and occasionally siltstone in the
La Toca and Yanigua Formations that represent environments close to sea level that
subsequently have been uplifted and deformed (Iturralde-Vinent and MacPhee
1996). The age of Dominican Amber has been controversial for the past 35 years.
Based on a variety of techniques, the age of Dominican Amber is now usually considered as lower Miocene (Grimaldi 1996; Iturralde-Vinent 2001; Penney 2010),
equivalent to 16–23 Ma (Walker et al. 2013). The midpoint of this range is about
21 Ma, which is the often-used age of Dominican Amber. The source of the amber
is the extinct species of the tree Hymenaea protera (Fabaceae), whose leaves, stipules, buds, flowers and pollen are often found dispersed within the amber. The
Dominican Amber Biota constitutes one of the most diverse and abundant amber
biotas known, and contains a broad spectrum of insect taxa (Arillo and Ortuño
2005; Penney 2010; Poinar Jr 2010). A parasitoid-bearing lineage of Neuroptera is
Hemerobioformia (Mantispidae) and Coleoptera that contributed two parasitoidbearing groups: Staphylinoidea (Staphylinidae) and Tenebrionoidea (Ripiphoridae).
Strepsipteran parasitoids were Neostrepsiptera consisting of Bohartillidae,
Elenchidae, Myrmecolacidae and Protelencholacidae. Parasitoid-bearing dipteran
lineages are Culicomorpha (Chironomidae), Bibionomorpha (Mycetophilidae),
Nemestrinimorpha (Acroceridae), and in Muscomorpha: Asiloidea (Asilidae),
Empidoidea (Empididae), Aschiza (Phoridae, Pipunculidae) and Schizophora
(Muscidae, Tachinidae). For Trichoptera, the sole parasitoid-bearing lineage,
Hydroptilidae, is present. Similarly, the obligately parasitoid lineage of Lepidoptera,
Zygaenoidea (Epipyropidae), has been recorded. Hymenopteran parasitoid-bearing
lineages were the most abundant compared to the seven preceding biotas and contained many major elements of the MMPR. These elements were Orussoidea
(Orussidae), Evanioidea (Evaniidae), Platygastroidea (Platygastridae, Scelionidae),
Ceraphronoidea (Ceraphronidae), Chalcidoidea (Encyrtidae, Eulophidae,
Eupelmidae, Leucospidae, Mymaridae, Pteromalidae, Torymidae), Ichneumonoidea
(Braconidae), and the aculeate Chrysidoidea (Bethylidae, Chrysididae, Dryinidae,
Sclerogibbidae, Scolebythidae), Vespoidea (Mutillidae, Pompilidae) and Apoidea
(Crabronidae, Sphecidae) (Arillo and Ortuño 2005; Engel 2008b; Penney 2010;
Poinar Jr 2010) (Table 11.1). The diversity of parasitoid-associated hymenopteran
families in the Dominican Amber Biota is 22 families and 94 species, a considerable
increase over the Messel Biota but very roughly comparable to the earlier Canadian
and Myanmar amber biotas. It appears that the Dominican Amber Biota is positioned in the middle of a plateau of parasitoid diversity representing the 40 millionyear- long interval from the middle Eocene (Lutetian Stage) to the late Miocene
(Messinian Stage).The parasitoid guilds have a very modern cast, and notably none
of the family-level lineages are extinct.
C. C. Labandeira and L. Li