143
Acknowledgements We thank Joe Ryan and David Plachetszki for illuminating discussion and
insights about patterns of myxozoan evolution over time. We thank Kenneth De Baets for inviting
us to develop our chapter. Comments from Steve Feist and Kenneth De Baets helped us to improve
our chapter. Insights relevant to the development of this chapter have benefitted by support for
research involving myxozoans from the Natural Environment Research Council grants (GR9/04271;
GR3/11068; GR3/09956; NER/A/S/1999/00075; NER/B/S/2000/00336; NER/S/A/2004/12399;
NE/019227/1), The Leverhulme Trust (a Research Fellowship awarded to B. Okamura), the
Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BB/F003242/1); a DAAD postdoctoral
fellowship to AG, and a Marie-Curie Fellowship (272772, Myxozoa Evo Devo).
References
Abd-Elfattah A, Fontes I, Kumar G, Soliman H, Hartikainen H, Okamura B, El-Matbouli M (2014)
Vertical transmission of Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae (Myxozoa), the causative agent of
salmonid proliferative kidney disease. Parasitology 141:482–490
Adriano EA, Okamura B (2017) Motility, morphology and phylogeny of the plasmodial worm,
Ceratomyxa vermiformis n. sp. (Cnidaria: Myxozoa: Myxosporea). Parasitology 144:158–168
Alexander JD, Kerans BL, El-Matbouli M, Hallett SL, Stevens L (2015) Annelid-Myxosporean
interactions. In: Okamura B, Gruhl A, Bartholomew JL (eds) Myxozoan evolution, ecology
and development. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 217–234
Andreev P, Coates MI, Karatajūtė-Talimaa V, Shelton RM, Cooper PR, Wang N-Z, Sansom IJ
(2016) The systematics of the Mongolepidida (Chondrichthyes) and the Ordovician origins of
the clade. PeerJ 4:e1850
Appeltans W et al (2012) The magnitude of global marine species biodiversity. Curr Biol
22:2189–2202
Atkinson SD, Bartošová-Sojková P, Whipps CM, Bartholomew JL (2015) Approaches for characterising myxozoan species. In: Okamura B, Gruhl A, Bartholomew J (eds) Myxozoan evolution, ecology and development. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 111–123
Balasubramanian PG, Beckmann A, Warnken U, Schnölzer M, Schüler A, Bornberg-Bauer E,
Holstein TW, Özbek S (2012) Proteome of the Hydra nematocyst. J Biol Chem 287:9672–9681
Banks JC, Paterson AM (2005) Multi-host parasite species in cophylogenetic studies. Int J Parasitol
35:741–746
Bartholomew J, Whipple M, Stevens D, Fryer JL (1997) The life cycle of Ceratomyxa shasta, a
myxosporean parasite of salmonids, requires a freshwater polychaete as an alternate host. J
Parasitol 83:859–868
Bartošová-Sojková P, Hrabcová M, Pecková H, Patra S, Kodádková A, Jurajda P, Tyml T, Holzer
AS (2014) Hidden diversity and evolutionary trends in malacosporean parasites (Cnidaria:
Myxozoa) using molecular phylogenetics. Int J Parasitol 44:565–577
Bentlage B, Osborn KJ, Lindsay DJ, Hopcroft RR, Raskoff KA, Collins AG (2018) Loss of metagenesis and evolution of a parasitic life style in a group of open-ocean jellyfish. Mol Phylogenet
Evol 124:50–59
Benton MJ, Donoghue PCJ, Asher R (2009) Calibrating and constraining molecular clocks. In:
Hedges SB, Kumar S (eds) The timetree of life. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 35–86
Bigelow HB (1909) Reports on the scientific results of the expedition to the eastern tropical
Pacific, in charge of Alexander Agassiz, by the U.S. Fish Commission Steamer ‘Albatross’,
from October, 1904, to March, 1905, Lieut. Commander L.M. Garrett, U.S.N., commanding.
XVI. The Medusae. Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University
37:1–243
Blaxter ML, Koutsovoulos G (2014) The evolution of parasitism in Nematoda. Parasitology
142(Suppl 1):S26–S39
4 Evolution, Origins and Diversification of Parasitic Cnidarians
Acknowledgements We thank Joe Ryan and David Plachetszki for illuminating discussion and
insights about patterns of myxozoan evolution over time. We thank Kenneth De Baets for inviting
us to develop our chapter. Comments from Steve Feist and Kenneth De Baets helped us to improve
our chapter. Insights relevant to the development of this chapter have benefitted by support for
research involving myxozoans from the Natural Environment Research Council grants (GR9/04271;
GR3/11068; GR3/09956; NER/A/S/1999/00075; NER/B/S/2000/00336; NER/S/A/2004/12399;
NE/019227/1), The Leverhulme Trust (a Research Fellowship awarded to B. Okamura), the
Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BB/F003242/1); a DAAD postdoctoral
fellowship to AG, and a Marie-Curie Fellowship (272772, Myxozoa Evo Devo).
References
Abd-Elfattah A, Fontes I, Kumar G, Soliman H, Hartikainen H, Okamura B, El-Matbouli M (2014)
Vertical transmission of Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae (Myxozoa), the causative agent of
salmonid proliferative kidney disease. Parasitology 141:482–490
Adriano EA, Okamura B (2017) Motility, morphology and phylogeny of the plasmodial worm,
Ceratomyxa vermiformis n. sp. (Cnidaria: Myxozoa: Myxosporea). Parasitology 144:158–168
Alexander JD, Kerans BL, El-Matbouli M, Hallett SL, Stevens L (2015) Annelid-Myxosporean
interactions. In: Okamura B, Gruhl A, Bartholomew JL (eds) Myxozoan evolution, ecology
and development. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 217–234
Andreev P, Coates MI, Karatajūtė-Talimaa V, Shelton RM, Cooper PR, Wang N-Z, Sansom IJ
(2016) The systematics of the Mongolepidida (Chondrichthyes) and the Ordovician origins of
the clade. PeerJ 4:e1850
Appeltans W et al (2012) The magnitude of global marine species biodiversity. Curr Biol
22:2189–2202
Atkinson SD, Bartošová-Sojková P, Whipps CM, Bartholomew JL (2015) Approaches for characterising myxozoan species. In: Okamura B, Gruhl A, Bartholomew J (eds) Myxozoan evolution, ecology and development. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 111–123
Balasubramanian PG, Beckmann A, Warnken U, Schnölzer M, Schüler A, Bornberg-Bauer E,
Holstein TW, Özbek S (2012) Proteome of the Hydra nematocyst. J Biol Chem 287:9672–9681
Banks JC, Paterson AM (2005) Multi-host parasite species in cophylogenetic studies. Int J Parasitol
35:741–746
Bartholomew J, Whipple M, Stevens D, Fryer JL (1997) The life cycle of Ceratomyxa shasta, a
myxosporean parasite of salmonids, requires a freshwater polychaete as an alternate host. J
Parasitol 83:859–868
Bartošová-Sojková P, Hrabcová M, Pecková H, Patra S, Kodádková A, Jurajda P, Tyml T, Holzer
AS (2014) Hidden diversity and evolutionary trends in malacosporean parasites (Cnidaria:
Myxozoa) using molecular phylogenetics. Int J Parasitol 44:565–577
Bentlage B, Osborn KJ, Lindsay DJ, Hopcroft RR, Raskoff KA, Collins AG (2018) Loss of metagenesis and evolution of a parasitic life style in a group of open-ocean jellyfish. Mol Phylogenet
Evol 124:50–59
Benton MJ, Donoghue PCJ, Asher R (2009) Calibrating and constraining molecular clocks. In:
Hedges SB, Kumar S (eds) The timetree of life. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 35–86
Bigelow HB (1909) Reports on the scientific results of the expedition to the eastern tropical
Pacific, in charge of Alexander Agassiz, by the U.S. Fish Commission Steamer ‘Albatross’,
from October, 1904, to March, 1905, Lieut. Commander L.M. Garrett, U.S.N., commanding.
XVI. The Medusae. Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University
37:1–243
Blaxter ML, Koutsovoulos G (2014) The evolution of parasitism in Nematoda. Parasitology
142(Suppl 1):S26–S39
4 Evolution, Origins and Diversification of Parasitic Cnidarians