89
3.3.3.3 Hyperparasitism
A parasite that infects a host which is parasitizing a third organism is termed a
hyperparasite (Parratt and Laine 2016). One of the oldest gilled mushrooms,
Palaeoagaricites antiquus, comes from Myanmar amber that is Early Cretaceous in
age (Fig. 3.4g) (Poinar and Buckley 2007). This fossil consists of a portion of a cap,
2.2 mm in diameter. Especially interesting is that this fossil agaric is parasitized by
a mycoparasite, Mycetophagites atrebora, which in turn is parasitized by a hyperparasitic fungus, Entropezites patricii (Fig. 3.4h). A structurally preserved ascomycete, Paleoserenomyces allenbyensis from the Eocene Princeton chert, occurs in
leaf tissue of the palm Uhlia allenbyensis (Fig. 3.4i) (Currah et al. 1998). The fungus is composed of multiple locules lined by thin-walled hyphae. Present in some of
the locules are globose ascomata interpreted as hyperparasites. The hyperparasite,
formally described as Cryptodidymosphaerites princetonensis (Fig. 3.4j), shares
structural details with certain present-day species in Didymosphaeria, a plant pathogen of multiple hosts that is included in the Pleosporales (Aptroot 1995). Last, an
interesting report by Van Geel et al. (2006), which demonstrated the potential of
examining multiple host–parasite interactions among organisms in the fossil record,
noted the subfossil occurrence of Isthmospora spinosa, a hyperparasite of various
genera within the Meliolaceae. Specimens were recovered from a Holocene bog and
demonstrated the tripartite relationship between the host Calluna vulgaris (heather)
and the parasitic fungus Meliola ellisii, which is in turn parasitized by I. spinosa.
3.3.4 Fungal Parasites of Animals
There is a diverse suite of fungi today that thrive as facultative and/or obligatory
parasites of invertebrates and vertebrates (Ainsworth et al. 1973); some are also the
causative agents of mild to severe diseases (Góralska and Błaszkowska 2015).
Although there are fungal infections that elicit abnormal growth or tissue
Fig. 3.4 (continued) Fig. 3.3e, focusing on bracketed area, showing hypha of a parasite entering
sporocarp cavity and extending to sac-like structure; color version of fig. 1C in Krings et al. 2011b;
scale bar = 50 μm. (g) Pileus of Palaeoagaricites antiquus preserved in amber and covered with
the mycelium of the mycoparasite Mycetophagites atrebora (Cretaceous); fig. 1a in Poinar and
Buckley 2007; scale bar = 500 μm. (h) Mycoparasite Mycetophagites atrebora parasitized by the
hyperparasite Entropezites patricii (arrows) (Cretaceous; fig. 1C in Poinar and Buckley 2007; scale
bar = 20 μm. (i) Section of stroma of Paleoserenomyces allenbyensis with endoparasite (arrow)
in locules (Eocene); color version of fig. 13 in Currah et al. 1998; scale bar = 500 μm. (j) Section
of Paleoserenomyces allenbyensis locule (lw) containing asci of endoparasite
Cryptodidymosphaerites princetonensis (Eocene); color version of fig. 15 in Currah et al. 1998;
scale bar = 50 μm. (k) Conidial heads of Aspergillus collembolorum (arrow) attached to the surface
of a springtail, head = h (Eocene); fig. 2 in Dörfelt and Schmidt 2005; scale bar = 500 μm. (l)
Paleoophiocordyceps coccophagus showing two synnemata (arrows) arising from head (h) of a
scale insect (Cretaceous); fig. 1 in Sung et al. 2008; scale bar = 500 μm
3 Fungi as Parasites: A Conspectus of the Fossil Record
3.3.3.3 Hyperparasitism
A parasite that infects a host which is parasitizing a third organism is termed a
hyperparasite (Parratt and Laine 2016). One of the oldest gilled mushrooms,
Palaeoagaricites antiquus, comes from Myanmar amber that is Early Cretaceous in
age (Fig. 3.4g) (Poinar and Buckley 2007). This fossil consists of a portion of a cap,
2.2 mm in diameter. Especially interesting is that this fossil agaric is parasitized by
a mycoparasite, Mycetophagites atrebora, which in turn is parasitized by a hyperparasitic fungus, Entropezites patricii (Fig. 3.4h). A structurally preserved ascomycete, Paleoserenomyces allenbyensis from the Eocene Princeton chert, occurs in
leaf tissue of the palm Uhlia allenbyensis (Fig. 3.4i) (Currah et al. 1998). The fungus is composed of multiple locules lined by thin-walled hyphae. Present in some of
the locules are globose ascomata interpreted as hyperparasites. The hyperparasite,
formally described as Cryptodidymosphaerites princetonensis (Fig. 3.4j), shares
structural details with certain present-day species in Didymosphaeria, a plant pathogen of multiple hosts that is included in the Pleosporales (Aptroot 1995). Last, an
interesting report by Van Geel et al. (2006), which demonstrated the potential of
examining multiple host–parasite interactions among organisms in the fossil record,
noted the subfossil occurrence of Isthmospora spinosa, a hyperparasite of various
genera within the Meliolaceae. Specimens were recovered from a Holocene bog and
demonstrated the tripartite relationship between the host Calluna vulgaris (heather)
and the parasitic fungus Meliola ellisii, which is in turn parasitized by I. spinosa.
3.3.4 Fungal Parasites of Animals
There is a diverse suite of fungi today that thrive as facultative and/or obligatory
parasites of invertebrates and vertebrates (Ainsworth et al. 1973); some are also the
causative agents of mild to severe diseases (Góralska and Błaszkowska 2015).
Although there are fungal infections that elicit abnormal growth or tissue
Fig. 3.4 (continued) Fig. 3.3e, focusing on bracketed area, showing hypha of a parasite entering
sporocarp cavity and extending to sac-like structure; color version of fig. 1C in Krings et al. 2011b;
scale bar = 50 μm. (g) Pileus of Palaeoagaricites antiquus preserved in amber and covered with
the mycelium of the mycoparasite Mycetophagites atrebora (Cretaceous); fig. 1a in Poinar and
Buckley 2007; scale bar = 500 μm. (h) Mycoparasite Mycetophagites atrebora parasitized by the
hyperparasite Entropezites patricii (arrows) (Cretaceous; fig. 1C in Poinar and Buckley 2007; scale
bar = 20 μm. (i) Section of stroma of Paleoserenomyces allenbyensis with endoparasite (arrow)
in locules (Eocene); color version of fig. 13 in Currah et al. 1998; scale bar = 500 μm. (j) Section
of Paleoserenomyces allenbyensis locule (lw) containing asci of endoparasite
Cryptodidymosphaerites princetonensis (Eocene); color version of fig. 15 in Currah et al. 1998;
scale bar = 50 μm. (k) Conidial heads of Aspergillus collembolorum (arrow) attached to the surface
of a springtail, head = h (Eocene); fig. 2 in Dörfelt and Schmidt 2005; scale bar = 500 μm. (l)
Paleoophiocordyceps coccophagus showing two synnemata (arrows) arising from head (h) of a
scale insect (Cretaceous); fig. 1 in Sung et al. 2008; scale bar = 500 μm
3 Fungi as Parasites: A Conspectus of the Fossil Record