decreased and economy improved, although Gustav’s interests were more devoted
to culture than to science, and the freedom of press was once again suppressed.
Although Scheele and Bergman grew up and lived during a rather turbulent time in
Swedish history, neither of them seems to have had any interest in political matters.
1.2 Science: Linnaeus and Klingenstierna
The Age of Liberty coincided with the enlightenment movement, which was
welcomed by Sweden, with its strong connections to France during the power of the
Hat party. Swedish science soon reached a very high place of eminence. Science
was seen by the leaders as a way to improve the society by, for instance, increasing
the quality and yield of iron and copper, improve agriculture and reduce import.
Among Swedish scientists, botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707−1778) and physicist
Samuel Klingenstierna (1698−1765) were the most influential, and their names will
appear repeatedly throughout this book.
Linnaeus (Fig. 1.3) was born in May of 1707 in Råshult, a vicarage in Stenbrohult, Småland. It was his father, Nils Ingemarsson, who took the name Linnæus.
Nils became vicar in Stenbrohult, but was also a devoted amateur botanist. Carl
Linnaeus attended grammar school in Växsjö before he enrolled at Lund University
in 1727. He received private tutoring from Killian Stobæus (1690–1742), professor
of natural history, in whose house Linnaeus also lived. In 1728, Linnaeus moved to
Uppsala, where he studied medicine under professors Lars Roberg (1664–1742)
and Olof Rudbeck the younger (1660–1740).
4 He was also appointed by botanist,
linguist, and theology professor Olof Celsius the elder (1670–1756) as private tutor
for his children. After Linnaeus had presented a thesis on sexual reproduction in
plants in 1729, Rudbeck allowed him to give lectures on botany. On recommendation by Rudbeck and Celsius, he was commissioned by the Royal Society of
Sciences at Uppsala to travel through Lappland, the northernmost province of
Sweden, and northern Finland in 1732. During his travel, he studied botany, zoology, geology, as well as local history and ethnology. Latter, Linnaeus undertook
similar trips to Dalarna in 1743 (where he met his wife to be), Öland and Gotland in
1741, Västergötland in 1746, and Skåne in 1749. The books that he wrote after
returning from his trips have been reprinted many times through the years and are
still appreciated accounts of the life in Sweden in the eighteenth century.
In February 1735, Linnaeus travelled to Hardwijk in the Netherlands to obtain
his M.D. degree. The University of Hardwijk was well known for issuing a doctoral
degree within a week. Linnaeus had written his thesis in Uppsala, and he also
brought manuscripts for a number of scientific publications, most notably his
Systema naturæ, which would revolutionise biology by introducing the system of
classification still used today. After receiving his M.D. degree, Linnaeus went to
4
Olof Rudbäck the younger was a son of Uppsala professor Olof Rudbäck the Elder (1630–1702),
who discovered the lymphatic system.
1.1 Sweden in the Eighteenth Century
5
to culture than to science, and the freedom of press was once again suppressed.
Although Scheele and Bergman grew up and lived during a rather turbulent time in
Swedish history, neither of them seems to have had any interest in political matters.
1.2 Science: Linnaeus and Klingenstierna
The Age of Liberty coincided with the enlightenment movement, which was
welcomed by Sweden, with its strong connections to France during the power of the
Hat party. Swedish science soon reached a very high place of eminence. Science
was seen by the leaders as a way to improve the society by, for instance, increasing
the quality and yield of iron and copper, improve agriculture and reduce import.
Among Swedish scientists, botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707−1778) and physicist
Samuel Klingenstierna (1698−1765) were the most influential, and their names will
appear repeatedly throughout this book.
Linnaeus (Fig. 1.3) was born in May of 1707 in Råshult, a vicarage in Stenbrohult, Småland. It was his father, Nils Ingemarsson, who took the name Linnæus.
Nils became vicar in Stenbrohult, but was also a devoted amateur botanist. Carl
Linnaeus attended grammar school in Växsjö before he enrolled at Lund University
in 1727. He received private tutoring from Killian Stobæus (1690–1742), professor
of natural history, in whose house Linnaeus also lived. In 1728, Linnaeus moved to
Uppsala, where he studied medicine under professors Lars Roberg (1664–1742)
and Olof Rudbeck the younger (1660–1740).
4 He was also appointed by botanist,
linguist, and theology professor Olof Celsius the elder (1670–1756) as private tutor
for his children. After Linnaeus had presented a thesis on sexual reproduction in
plants in 1729, Rudbeck allowed him to give lectures on botany. On recommendation by Rudbeck and Celsius, he was commissioned by the Royal Society of
Sciences at Uppsala to travel through Lappland, the northernmost province of
Sweden, and northern Finland in 1732. During his travel, he studied botany, zoology, geology, as well as local history and ethnology. Latter, Linnaeus undertook
similar trips to Dalarna in 1743 (where he met his wife to be), Öland and Gotland in
1741, Västergötland in 1746, and Skåne in 1749. The books that he wrote after
returning from his trips have been reprinted many times through the years and are
still appreciated accounts of the life in Sweden in the eighteenth century.
In February 1735, Linnaeus travelled to Hardwijk in the Netherlands to obtain
his M.D. degree. The University of Hardwijk was well known for issuing a doctoral
degree within a week. Linnaeus had written his thesis in Uppsala, and he also
brought manuscripts for a number of scientific publications, most notably his
Systema naturæ, which would revolutionise biology by introducing the system of
classification still used today. After receiving his M.D. degree, Linnaeus went to
4
Olof Rudbäck the younger was a son of Uppsala professor Olof Rudbäck the Elder (1630–1702),
who discovered the lymphatic system.
1.1 Sweden in the Eighteenth Century
5