The complexity of peat restoration is a reality. Consequently, a management
regime of peat restoration must cope with integrated problems of peat properties,
vegetation, climate, socio-political issues, and managerial uncertainties. Peat restoration is about rewetting and replanting, but mostly about remaking people to take
care of the peat ecosystem as a super-organism that is uniquely non-comparable to
other ecosystems in this world. Further, circularity in nutrient uses is a qualitative
nature in the healthy tropical peat swamp forest.
Acknowledgments The author is very grateful to Prof. Jack Rieley and Prof. M. Osaki who
reviewed this manuscript and wrote constructed comments. Sincere thank you also to Dr. Nobuyuki
Tsuji for his help and support to finish this manuscript.
References
Anderson JAR (1963) The flora of the peat swamp forest of Sarawak and Brunei, including a
catalog of all recorded species of flowering plants, ferns, and fern allies. Singap Gard Bull
20:131–228
Anderson JAR, Muller J (1975) Palynological study of a Holocene peat and a Miocene coal deposit
from NW Borneo. Rev Palaeobot Palynol 19:291–351. https://doi.org/10.1016/0034-6667(75)
90049-4
Anshari G, Kershaw PA, van der Kaars S (2001) A Late Pleistocene and Holocene pollen and
charcoal record from peat swamp forest, Lake Sentarum Wildlife Reserve, West Kalimantan,
Indonesia. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 171:213–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/
S0031-0182(01)00246-2
Anshari G, Kershaw PA, van der Kaars S, Jacobsen G (2004) Environmental change and peatland
forest dynamics in the Lake Sentarum area, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. J Quat Sci
19:637–655. https://doi.org/10.1002/jqs.879
Anshari, Afifudin M, Nuriman M et al (2010) Drainage and land use impacts on changes in selected
peat properties and peat degradation in West Kalimantan Province, Indonesia. Biogeosciences
7:3403–3419. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-7-3403-2010
Badan Restorasi Gambut (BRG) (2018) Penentuan Tingkat Rujukan (Reference Level) untuk
Menilai Perubahan Emisi dari Kegiatan Restorasi Lahan Gambut. BRG, Jakarta
Bader MK-F, Leuzinger S (2019) Hydraulic coupling of a leafless kauri tree remnant to conspecific
hosts. iScience 19:1238–1243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2019.07.04
Cameron CC, Palmer CA, Esterle JS (1990) The geology of selected peat-forming environments in
temperate and tropical latitudes. Int J Coal Geol 16:127–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/0166-5162
(90)90018-T
Cooper HV, Vane CH, Evers S et al (2019) From peat swamp forest to oil palm plantations: the
stability of tropical peatland carbon. Geoderma 342:109–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
geoderma.2019.02.021
Dommain R, Couwenberg J, Joosten H (2011) Development and carbon sequestration of tropical
peat domes in south-east Asia: links to post-glacial sea-level changes and Holocene climate
variability. Quat Sci Rev 30:999–1010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2011.01.018
Evans CD, Williamson JM, Kacaribu F et al (2019) Rates and spatial variability of peat subsidence
in Acacia plantation and forest landscapes in Sumatra, Indonesia. Geoderma 338:410–421.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2018.12.028
Freeman C, Ostle NJ, Fenner N, Kang H (2004) A regulatory role for phenol oxidase during
decomposition in peatlands. Soil Biol Biochem 36:1663–1667. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
soilbio.2004.07.012
16 Circularity and Singularity of Tropical Peat Swamp Forest Ecosystems
473
regime of peat restoration must cope with integrated problems of peat properties,
vegetation, climate, socio-political issues, and managerial uncertainties. Peat restoration is about rewetting and replanting, but mostly about remaking people to take
care of the peat ecosystem as a super-organism that is uniquely non-comparable to
other ecosystems in this world. Further, circularity in nutrient uses is a qualitative
nature in the healthy tropical peat swamp forest.
Acknowledgments The author is very grateful to Prof. Jack Rieley and Prof. M. Osaki who
reviewed this manuscript and wrote constructed comments. Sincere thank you also to Dr. Nobuyuki
Tsuji for his help and support to finish this manuscript.
References
Anderson JAR (1963) The flora of the peat swamp forest of Sarawak and Brunei, including a
catalog of all recorded species of flowering plants, ferns, and fern allies. Singap Gard Bull
20:131–228
Anderson JAR, Muller J (1975) Palynological study of a Holocene peat and a Miocene coal deposit
from NW Borneo. Rev Palaeobot Palynol 19:291–351. https://doi.org/10.1016/0034-6667(75)
90049-4
Anshari G, Kershaw PA, van der Kaars S (2001) A Late Pleistocene and Holocene pollen and
charcoal record from peat swamp forest, Lake Sentarum Wildlife Reserve, West Kalimantan,
Indonesia. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 171:213–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/
S0031-0182(01)00246-2
Anshari G, Kershaw PA, van der Kaars S, Jacobsen G (2004) Environmental change and peatland
forest dynamics in the Lake Sentarum area, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. J Quat Sci
19:637–655. https://doi.org/10.1002/jqs.879
Anshari, Afifudin M, Nuriman M et al (2010) Drainage and land use impacts on changes in selected
peat properties and peat degradation in West Kalimantan Province, Indonesia. Biogeosciences
7:3403–3419. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-7-3403-2010
Badan Restorasi Gambut (BRG) (2018) Penentuan Tingkat Rujukan (Reference Level) untuk
Menilai Perubahan Emisi dari Kegiatan Restorasi Lahan Gambut. BRG, Jakarta
Bader MK-F, Leuzinger S (2019) Hydraulic coupling of a leafless kauri tree remnant to conspecific
hosts. iScience 19:1238–1243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2019.07.04
Cameron CC, Palmer CA, Esterle JS (1990) The geology of selected peat-forming environments in
temperate and tropical latitudes. Int J Coal Geol 16:127–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/0166-5162
(90)90018-T
Cooper HV, Vane CH, Evers S et al (2019) From peat swamp forest to oil palm plantations: the
stability of tropical peatland carbon. Geoderma 342:109–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
geoderma.2019.02.021
Dommain R, Couwenberg J, Joosten H (2011) Development and carbon sequestration of tropical
peat domes in south-east Asia: links to post-glacial sea-level changes and Holocene climate
variability. Quat Sci Rev 30:999–1010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2011.01.018
Evans CD, Williamson JM, Kacaribu F et al (2019) Rates and spatial variability of peat subsidence
in Acacia plantation and forest landscapes in Sumatra, Indonesia. Geoderma 338:410–421.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2018.12.028
Freeman C, Ostle NJ, Fenner N, Kang H (2004) A regulatory role for phenol oxidase during
decomposition in peatlands. Soil Biol Biochem 36:1663–1667. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
soilbio.2004.07.012
16 Circularity and Singularity of Tropical Peat Swamp Forest Ecosystems
473