actual acid sulfate soils, and deep freshwater swampland with more than 6 months of
flooding (Mulyani and Sarwani 2013).
In Indonesia, acid upland has the greatest potency for agriculture among the other
types. Acid upland is a land under old sediments and volcanic parent materials or
other soils with low base saturation and high humidity regimes with rainfall over
2000 mm. These conditions cause low soil pH and high aluminum saturation, due to
high leaching of base cations (Subagyo et al. 2000). According to Soil Survey Staff
(1999), the soil included in acid upland is Ultisol, Oxisol, and Inceptisol. Acid
upland requires proper land management including improving the land quality to
increase its productivity.
Semi-arid is an upland that has an ustic soil moisture regime and/or is included in
a dry climate with total rainfall <2000 mm per year, and the dry months last
>7 months (<100 mm rainfall per month) (Balitklimat 2003). The main parent
material found is limestone, sediment, and volcanic material. Low rainfall results in
low alkaline leaching, so that generally the alkaline saturation is >50% (eutric), the
soil pH is neutral and tends to be slightly alkaline. The most found soils are Alfisols,
Mollisols, Entisols, and Vertisols (Mulyani et al. 2013). The common problem is the
scarcity of water resources, due to low rainfall, so that the types of plants and
cropping indexes are more limited.
Unlike the upland, the main problem of swampland is always being water-logged
or inundated (Subagyo 2006). Tidal swampland is a swamp that is affected by tides.
Based on the soil classification (Soil Survey Staff 1999), tidal swampland is characterized by aquic conditions (saturated with water) and has a sulfidic material (iron
sulfide) or pyrite, generally reacting with extreme acidity (pH <4), so it is often
called an acid sulfate soil (Subagyo 2006). It generally has a low level of fertility and
productivity so that agricultural development in this area requires technological
inputs such as amelioration, water management, and varieties that are resistant to
acidity, inundation, and high salinity.
Freshwater swampland is a swamp which is affected by flooding for at least
3 months with flooding depth at least 50 cm (Subagyo 2006). The soil chemical
properties of freshwater swampland depend on the type of the soil. Mineral soil
(river sediment) has a clay texture, pH of 4.5–6.5, and moderate level of soil fertility
due to enriched mud from the upstream area every year. Freshwater swampland is
suitable for agriculture, but the specific problem is the unpredictable water flooding
fluctuation.
Peatland is land with an accumulation of decomposed organic matter, with ash
content equal to or less than 35%, peat depth !50 cm, and organic carbon content
based on a minimum weight of 12% (Soil Survey Staff 2011). The development of
peatland for agriculture faces land biophysical, socio-economic, and environmental
constraints. Land biophysical conditions that often arise are subsidence, irreversible
drying, acidification, nutrient deficiency, low bearing capacity, and high porosity.
Peatland management requires environmentally friendly technology including land
clearing without burning, amelioration, and low emission fertilization, as well as
environmentally friendly pest control.
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E. Maftuah et al.
flooding (Mulyani and Sarwani 2013).
In Indonesia, acid upland has the greatest potency for agriculture among the other
types. Acid upland is a land under old sediments and volcanic parent materials or
other soils with low base saturation and high humidity regimes with rainfall over
2000 mm. These conditions cause low soil pH and high aluminum saturation, due to
high leaching of base cations (Subagyo et al. 2000). According to Soil Survey Staff
(1999), the soil included in acid upland is Ultisol, Oxisol, and Inceptisol. Acid
upland requires proper land management including improving the land quality to
increase its productivity.
Semi-arid is an upland that has an ustic soil moisture regime and/or is included in
a dry climate with total rainfall <2000 mm per year, and the dry months last
>7 months (<100 mm rainfall per month) (Balitklimat 2003). The main parent
material found is limestone, sediment, and volcanic material. Low rainfall results in
low alkaline leaching, so that generally the alkaline saturation is >50% (eutric), the
soil pH is neutral and tends to be slightly alkaline. The most found soils are Alfisols,
Mollisols, Entisols, and Vertisols (Mulyani et al. 2013). The common problem is the
scarcity of water resources, due to low rainfall, so that the types of plants and
cropping indexes are more limited.
Unlike the upland, the main problem of swampland is always being water-logged
or inundated (Subagyo 2006). Tidal swampland is a swamp that is affected by tides.
Based on the soil classification (Soil Survey Staff 1999), tidal swampland is characterized by aquic conditions (saturated with water) and has a sulfidic material (iron
sulfide) or pyrite, generally reacting with extreme acidity (pH <4), so it is often
called an acid sulfate soil (Subagyo 2006). It generally has a low level of fertility and
productivity so that agricultural development in this area requires technological
inputs such as amelioration, water management, and varieties that are resistant to
acidity, inundation, and high salinity.
Freshwater swampland is a swamp which is affected by flooding for at least
3 months with flooding depth at least 50 cm (Subagyo 2006). The soil chemical
properties of freshwater swampland depend on the type of the soil. Mineral soil
(river sediment) has a clay texture, pH of 4.5–6.5, and moderate level of soil fertility
due to enriched mud from the upstream area every year. Freshwater swampland is
suitable for agriculture, but the specific problem is the unpredictable water flooding
fluctuation.
Peatland is land with an accumulation of decomposed organic matter, with ash
content equal to or less than 35%, peat depth !50 cm, and organic carbon content
based on a minimum weight of 12% (Soil Survey Staff 2011). The development of
peatland for agriculture faces land biophysical, socio-economic, and environmental
constraints. Land biophysical conditions that often arise are subsidence, irreversible
drying, acidification, nutrient deficiency, low bearing capacity, and high porosity.
Peatland management requires environmentally friendly technology including land
clearing without burning, amelioration, and low emission fertilization, as well as
environmentally friendly pest control.
340
E. Maftuah et al.